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The National Education Association 
OF the United States 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND 
COST OF LIVING 



July, I 918 



The National Education Association 

OF THE United States , W^^xvr^^oiJJuLju 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND 
COST OF LIVING 



THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHERS' 

SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 

JULY, 1918 



WASHINGTON 

The National Education Association 
1918 






CoPYEiGHX 1918 By 
The National Education Association 



MAR 22 1819 

ICI.A515258 



Composed and Printed By 

The University of Chicago Press 

ChicaffO, Illinois. U.S.A. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction v 

Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions . i 

I. Report on Salaries i 

The Nation and the Crisis in Its Schools i 

Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living g 

How Is the Money to Be Obtained to Pay Adequate Salaries to Teachers ? 22 

II. Report on Tenure 36 

III. Report on Pensions 37 

Preliminary Statement 37 

Teachers' Pensions 37 

Joint Resolution of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, 

AND the Commission on the N.^tional Emergency in Education ... 43 

Appendix I: Replies of State Superintendents Relative to Teachers' Salaries . 46 

Appendix II: Measures Adopted to Meet the Present Emergency ... 48 



Appendix III: Estimated Salaries and Expenditures Necessary to Meet the 
-Advance in the Cost of Living, 1918 



Appendix IV: Percentage of Illiteracy Charted by States .... 

Appendix V: Density of Illiterate Population — Two Sections Compared . 

Appendix VI: Cities Reporting No Increase in Teachers' Salaries for 19 18 

Appendix VII: Maximum and Minimum Teachers' Salaries in 108 Cities . 

Appendix VIII: Summary of Report on Salaries Paid to Teachers in 320 Cities 

Appendix IX : Increase in Salaries of Teachers in Certain Cities 

Appendix X: Average Amoimt of Wealth per Teacher in the Several States 



49 
50 
52 
53 
54 
58 
59 
62 



Appendix XI: Relation of Salaries to Expenses of 1504 Teachers in the Cities of 

Missouri (December, 191 7) 64 

Appendix XII: The War and Teachers' Salaries 65 

Appendix XIII: Teachers' Salaries — Bibliography 70 



m 



INTRODUCTION 



This report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and 
Pensions falls into three parts: 
I. Salaries 
II. Tenure (a brief preliminary statement) 

III. Pensions 

Important as tenure and pensions are, the present emergency in educa- 
tion puts them temporarily in the background of interest as compared with 
what is now the critically important question of salaries. The section of 
the report devoted to salaries falls into three parts: 

"The Nation and the Crisis in Its Schools," a brief general statement 
of the situation and the remedy. 

"Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living," a more detailed statement 
of the economic facts that back up the generalizations of Part I. 

"How Shall the Money Be Obtained to Pay Adequate Salaries to 
Teachers?" — a discussion of the ways and means of carrying the remedy 
suggested into practical effect. 

In the preparation of this report the committee has been assisted 
by the following persons, to whom special thanks and acknowledgments 
are due: Harold C. Goddard, professor of English, Swarthmore College, 
Swarthmore, Pa., for preparing "The. Nation and the Crisis in Its 
Schools," and for valuable assistance in editing the report; Robert C. 
Brooks, professor of Political Science, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, 
Pa., for the preparation of "Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living," 
George D. Strayer, professor of Educational Administration, Teachers 
College, Columbia University, for collecting and reporting teachers' salary 
data reported in Appendixes VI and VIII on "Cities Reporting No Increase 
in Teachers' Salaries," and "Salaries Paid to Teachers in 320 Cities in the 
United States"; John A. H. Keith, president. State Normal School, Indi- 
ana, Pa., for supplying the data in Appendix X on "The Average Amount 
of Wealth per Teacher in the Several States"; Uel W. Lampkin, state 
superintendent of public instruction, Missouri, for the data in Appendix XI 
on "Relation of Salaries to Expenses of 1504 Teachers in the Cities of 
Missouri"; I. L. Kandel, associate in education. Teachers College, Colum- 
bia University, for preparing the article in Appendix XII on "The War and 
Teachers' Salaries — England and Wales"; John D. Wolcott, chief of the 
Library Division, Bureau of Education, for the bibliography on "Teach- 
ers' Salaries" in Appendix XIII. r^^ Committee 



Now THAT THE WaR Is OvER AND THE NATIONAL BUDGET, ON THAT 

Account, Can Be Cut Down by Billions, the Country Will Be 
Doubly Recreant ip It Fails to Take Prompt and Effective Action 
IN This Matter of Its Schools. 



REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHERS' 
SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 



I. REPORT ON SALARIES 

Owing to the effect of the world-war on prices, the committee has 
deemed it advisable to make a more extended report on salaries than other- 
wise would have been necessary. Not only have definite recommendations 
been made, but data have been appended which support the recommenda- 
tions made. 

The committee has been fortunate in securing the services of a number 
of persons in preparing this report. While the committee agrees with the 
conclusions and recommendations set forth, the persons writing the different 
parts are responsible for the statements of facts. 

The report is submitted with the hope that it will not only meet with 
the approval of the National Education Association, but be found helpful 
to legislators, school officials, teachers, and the general pubhc. 

Joseph Swain, Chairman 
Ernest C. Moore 
Margaret A. Haley 
David B. Johnson 
Harlan Updegraff 
Grace C. Forsythe 
James Ferguson 
Francis G. Blair 
John W. Carr 

THE NATION AND THE CRISIS IN ITS SCHOOLS 

Apart from the prosecution of the war itself, there is no more urgent 
problem now before the American people than that created by the threat- 
ened collapse of the teaching profession. Collapse is an extreme word, 
but so is the emergency it describes. The drafting into other work of 
large numbers of the most capable teachers, the continual opening of new 
doors of opportunity to thousands of others, the utterly inadequate financial 
provision for the majority of the remainder — these are no longer matters 
for debate. They are facts. And they are facts ominous with disaster 
for the nation. If the American people cannot be made to see the situation 
and to supply an early and drastic remedy, we shall run the risk, even tho 
we win the war, of losing much that makes the war worth winning. 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



Our schools are the spring and origin of our democracy. Of what avail 
will it be to spend our blood in defending the forms of democratic society 
if the life that is to fill and energize them is lost ? And if our schools suffer, 
it will be lost. It is futile to declare that this is a matter for the future. 
If the war has taught us anything, it has taught us that the future becomes 
the present with fatal rapidity, and that failure to provide for that future 
in advance is criminal. Foresight then is what is wanted, and again 
foresight, and yet again foresight. The American people now have a 
supreme opportunity to exercise foresight in the matter of their schools. 
Will they exercise it ? Or wiU they kill the goose that lays the golden eggs ? 

INDUSTRY ATTACHES VALUE TO EDUCATION 

Fortunately there are a few departments of education which anybody 
can see are not only indispensable to the life of the nation, but are as 
integral parts of the prosecution of the war as the building of ships or the 
training of armies. A bhnd man can see that if the teaching of chemistry 
or engineering or medicine in this country were to suffer, the military arm 
of the nation would soon be crippled. Fearful lest the supply of skilled 
workers should fall off, industrial leaders are realizing more fully every day 
how dependent they are on the flow of trained men from the hands of the 
schoolmasters. Within a month, for example, a manager of one of the 
largest munitions plants in the country came to the head of the department 
of chemistry of one of our colleges with the declaration that he was in 
need of a chemist particularly fitted for work of a character which he 
specified. 

"You have the very man we want," said he, naming an assistant pro- 
fessor of chemistry in the college in question. "You must let us have him." 

"But I can't," repUed the professor. "Our department cannot get on 
without him. He cannot be replaced." 

"How much is he receiving here?" inquired the manager. 

The head of the department mentioned the salary. 

"We will double that," declared the manager without an instant's hesi- 
tation, "if he will go to work for us tomorrow morning." 

"We cannot meet that offer," said the professor, "but if you take him, 
don't expect us to keep on sending you the groups of trained chemists 
that that man has helpt to turn out in the past." 

The manager hesitated; the thought seemed to sober him. "You're 
right," he exclaimed. "I see it. Keep your man. He is more indispen- 
sable to us here than he would be in our plant." And the manager went 
away to seek some other solution of his problem. 

That incident presents in miniature the relation of technical education 
to the war. Every day this war becomes more of a war of expert knowl- 
edge. The man behind the desk is as essential as the man behind the 
gun. Indeed he is the man behind the gun. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



All this is so plain in the case of subjects like chemistry, engineering, and 
medicine that an apology is almost necessary for dwelling on it. But it 
does not appear to be so plain in the case of subjects just as really, albeit a 
bit more indirectly, connected with the war. And when it comes to edu- 
cation generally, to the majority of the public it does not appear to be 
plain at all. 

EDUCATION PRESERVES FRUITS OF VICTORY 

The argument in many minds seems to run something like this: "Our 
business at present is to win the war. By all means let us keep the tech- 
nical schools that have a bearing on that business running full blast. As for 
the rest of the school system, time enough to attend to that when the war 
is over." Now, if we knew that the war would be over in a year; or if the 
country were financially at its last gasp, with taxation passing the limits of 
the tolerable — if luxury were entirely eliminated, and waste and extrava- 
gance things of the past; or if all the able-bodied men and women were at 
the front, in the factory, or on the farm — then there might be a gleam of 
reason in a proposition to close the schools till the war was over, or to let 
them pass into the hands of admittedly inferior persons. Even under such 
circumstances the proposal would be a desperate one. Culture and educa- 
tion are by their nature continuous things. They are a kind of birth. You 
cannot disturb the process of physical birth in a nation without disaster. 
Neither can you interrupt its spiritual and intellectual life and expect to take 
it up, unimpaired, where it was dropt. It would be tragedy indeed if the 
present generation were to win the war only to have the fruits of victory 
wasted by a generation incapable of understanding or using them. 

A WAR OF SCHOOLMASTERS 

Here it is that we touch the center of the misunderstanding concerning 
this war and general education. This is not merely a war of chemistry and 
engineering, a war of technical knowledge pitted against technical knowl- 
edge; it is a war of cultures and ideals, of ideas pitted against ideas. In 
this sense it is literally a war of schoolmasters; and only the hope of victory 
in this latter struggle makes the sacrifices of the other conflict seem worth 
while. But to achieve that victory the ideas and ideals for which we stand 
must be kept pure and free-flowing at their source. For that deeper war 
behind the other is bound to go on long after the physical strife has ceast. 
Everywhere men make the capital mistake of supposing that the good or 
the evil of this war is a thing that will be definitely settled on the day when 
victory is attained and the treaty of peace signed. There could not be a 
grosser error. 

The upshot of this war for humanity, the final good or bad of it, is going 
to depend on what the nations do as a result of it, on whether it gets the 
better of the brain of humanity by stunning it or whether the brain of 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



J 



humanity gets the better of it by understanding it. But this, in the main, 
hes with the will and the intellect of the next generation, and the will and 
the intellect of the next generation lie in no small measure in the keeping of 
the teachers of the present. 

MARKEDLY SUPERIOR TEACHERS DEMANDED 

It has become a truism that the Germany of today is the product of the 
German schoolmasters of yesterday. Just as certainly the America of 
tomorrow, perhaps the world of tomorrow, will be the product of the Ameri- 
can teachers of today. What, then, if the American teaching force of today 
comes to consist of an inferior selection from our present teachers supple- 
mented by high-school girls of no experience, no special training, of tempo- 
rary tenure, and only passing interest in their work! What if the prophecy 
of at least one publisher of textbooks be realized, who has declared that only 
"fool-proof" textbooks must be publisht in America for the preseiit— for 
the reason, to use his own words, that "we are going to have to deal with 
just that type of teacher for the next ten or fifteen years"! Such a pre- 
diction from an unsentimental business man with an eye to profits should 
set us thinking. America must not delude herself into believing that she 
can put her children into the hands of teachers of the "fool-proof text- 
book" type and yet expect those teachers to turn out a generation of states- 
men capable of grappling with the problems of what promises to be the most 
critical period in the social and political history of mankind. To achieve that 
result the teachers must be, on the contrary, not only not inferior, but mark- 
edly superior, the best that can be had, not merely in training and intellec- 
tual equipment, but in character, imagination, and social vision — men and 
women fitted by virtue of what they are to disseminate the spirit of democ- 
racy. We must put forever behind us the childish notion that reading, 
writing, arithmetic, and the rest are all there is to education. For the' 
genuine purposes of life, these are the incidental products of teaching; its 
central products are those intangible and imponderable things, that total 
attitude toward life, which the child takes in, as unconsciously as it takes 
in the air, from the personality of the teacher as a whole. Woe to the 
future if that personality be of inferior grade! 

SALARIES BELOW LEVEL OF SUBSISTENCE 

Yet at the present hour, as has been hinted, practically all forces 
are making in the direction of just such inferiority. There are induce- 
ments on every hand for the most successful teachers to leave the pro- 
fession. There are few inducements for those with promise of success to 
enter it. With the many branches of military service open to the teacher, 
with hundreds of industrial concerns bidding for the services of men and 
women with precisely the equipment that the teacher's training gives, and 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



with salaries in most of the schools far below even that modest level of 
subsistence that the teacher has been granted in the past, the profession is 
bound to undergo, is already undergoing, rapid deterioration. If it be urged 
that the teacher at this crisis should be patriotic and remain at his post, 
bearing his part of the sacrifice of the time, the answer is that there is no 
group of workers in the country who would be less willing, if they could, to 
escape that sacrifice. They, if anyone, are in a position to know the worth 
of the thing that is at stake. All they ask is that they shall not be called 
upon to carry an utterly unjust and crushing share of the burden. All they 
ask is that they shall be treated in the spirit of President Wilson's recent 
declaration to Congress that the load the people must shoulder must be 
equitably placed. "If the burden is justly distributed," were the Presi- 
dent's words, "and the sacrifice made a common sacrifice from which none 
escapes who can bear it at all, [the people of this country] will carry it 
cheerfully and with a sort of solemn pride.'' The teachers of the country 
subscribe unanimously to that creed, but they also ask to have it applied to 
their case. If it is not, what will happen to the teaching profession can 
be predicted with accuracy. The teachers of the country will fall roughly 
into three classes, classes which were already being defined during the 
decade and a half of sharp rise in prices prior to 1914. The war merely 
accelerated enormously their formation. 

POVERTY DETERIORATES THE PROFESSION 

First, there will be what we may call the endowed class. This will be 
a small one and will be confined in the main to the higher branches of educa- 
tion. It will consist of a certain number of financially independent persons 
who will continue teaching because of the pleasure of the work or the 
intellectual and social prestige flowing from connection with a college or 
university. However highly we may think of individuals within this 
group, the idea is repugnant to every democratic instinct we possess of 
having any part of our educational system pass under what would inevitably 
become a kind of upper-caste control. 

^ Second, there will be what, we may call the part-time class. This 
will consist of an immense nimiber who will give only a share of their time 
and energy to teaching: who will teach, but who will not expect their 
teaching salary to support them. Few outside the profession have any 
idea how largely the teachers of the country already belong to this 
class, from the many who earn a few dollars on the side or devote what 
ought to be their period of intellectual recreation, the summer vacation, 
to other work, to the few who frankly make their teaching incidental and 
double or treble their salaries by outside work. The effect of this state 
of affairs on the profession calls for no comment. No man can serve two 
masters in the vocational world any more than he can in the moral world. 
The secret of a strong will is undivided attention. No one can calculate the 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



degree to which the efficiency of education in this country is already im- 
paired thru the necessity under which thousands of teachers suffer of doing 
two things at once. What sort of work would the nation expect of its execu- 
tives and legislators, of its sailors and soldiers, or of its business men, if 
after their regular day's labor they were compelled to give their attention 
to some side line of work to eke out a living income ? Yet that is exactly 
what the nation seems to expect of a multitude of its teachers. And bad as 
this part-time condition is at present, it is bound, unless something radical 
is done, to become immeasurably worse. 

Then there will be a third class of teacher. For it there is no satis- 
factory name. Were the term not certain to be misunderstood, it might 
be called the sweated class. Perhaps the exploited class would be less open 
to objection. This class will consist in part of teachers who, thru age, or 
poor health, or family responsibilities, or other circumstances over which 
they have little or no control, will be able neither to escape from the pro- 
fession nor to add materially on the side to their teaching income, with 
the result that they will be compelled to take what is offered them and 

>' lower their standard of living accordingly. Such teachers will deserve 
nothing but sympathy. They will be slaves in outward condition but 
not in spirit. Much the same will be true of those teachers who, thru a 
mistaken sense of duty, combined with ignorance of political economy, 
remain at their desks when they could leave them. But this will not be 
the case with what it is to be hoped will prove a small group of teachers 
who, with both power to do otherwise and knowledge of the consequences 
of their choice, will accept a standard of living below the minimum of what 
makes genuine human life, as distinguisht from mere living, possible. 
Surely it is to be hoped that the time may never come when the teacher 
will not be willing to live simply. A certain austerity of life befits his posi- 
tion of spiritual leadership as it does that of the minister. But simplicity 
is one thing and a poverty that stunts the soul is another — and at the 
opposite pole. The teacher who submits to such poverty voluntarily is a 
slave in spirit as well as in outward fact, and his act degrades not only his 
own profession but the working world as a whole as certainly as child labor, 

y, or coolie labor, or convict labor, degrades it. 

LOW SALARIES HARM THE CHILD 

And even if poverty did not injure the teacher and his fellow-workers, 
how could it fail thru him to harm the child under his care ? How can he 
whose function is to awaken life perform that function when life, in the sense 
of something above mere subsistence, is denied him ? And how, on the other 
hand, can the child be expected to have respect for the things of the mind 
when he sees those who have devoted a lifetime to them refused the reason- 
able comforts of existence ? " Why should I go into teaching," a high-school 
girl is reported to have askt an aunt who was urging her to adopt her own 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LI VI NO 



vocation, "Why should I go into teaching when I can get two dollars and a 
half a day more than you are getting after teaching twenty years?" 
" Why should / want an education ? " a boy who had left school for the mines 
is said to have retorted smilingly to the teacher who was trying to impress 
on him the need of a high-school education for success in life, "Why 
should I want an education ? Why, my dear teacher, I'm making a good 
deal more than you are, now." What could the teacher say? No one in 
his senses desires to measure the value of truth in dollars. But you will 
never convince the rising generation that knowledge is power while it 
beholds so many of the professional dispensers of knowledge in a state of 
virtual slavery. 

These then are the three classes — an endowed class, a part-time class, a 
sweated or servile class. These are the divisions into which the American 
teaching profession will split up if some radical remedy is not adopted. Is 
this country willing to have its schools, which it has long pointed to with 
pride as the source of its democracy, pass into the hands of an endowed 
class, or a part-time class, or a slave class ? If it does, democracy in 
America deserves to perish. And it will perish. 

What, then, is the remedy ? 

There is just one remedy — tho there may seem to be two, owing to the 
two quite opposite ways thru which it may be attained. 

THE SOCIAL NEED FOR HIGHER SALARIES 

But before coming to the remedy and the methods of attaining it, let us 
notice what, emphatically, is not the remedy. The remedy is not to raise 
teachers' salaries sporadically, here a little and there a little, 25 per cent in 
this enlightened city, 5 per cent in that benighted one, $500 a year in some 
industrially booming section where teachers have grown scarce, $50 a 
year in some out-of-the-way corner of the land where supply and demand in 
teachers has not been perceptibly affected. "Supply and demand" — 
that goes to the heart of the matter. The critical situation of our schools 
will never be genuinely remedied so long as teachers' services are regarded as a 
commodity to he purchast at the cheapest obtainable rate in the open market. 
That, in too many places, is the present attitude toward the teacher. That 
attitude must end, or our democracy will end. The teacher must come 
to be taken for what he is : a public servant, performing a task of unsurpassed 
importance to the nation, and on that account just as fully entitled to 
adequate compensation, or its equivalent, as the soldier, the legislator, or 
the judge. From the kindergarten to the university the teaching pro- 
fession in America must be lifted, wherever it has fallen below it, to a level 
that will command for it the full respect of the community and attract 
into its ranks men and women of the first order. This demand would 
have been imperative, it is important to notice, even tho the war had not 
come to complicate matters. The problems of negro and alien education, 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



to mention no others, especially the presence among us of thousands of 
foreigners who could not speak a word of English, were questions that, 
prior to 19 14, were pressing for solution. The single staggering fact, brought 
out in a recent letter of Secretary Lane to the President of the United States, 
that there were in the United States in 1910 more than five and a half million 
persons over the age of ten who could neither read nor write in any language, 
shows better than anything else how incredibly far the country had fallen 
short, under the free and easy method of regarding teachers' services as a 
commodity, of creating a genuinely democratic system of education. 

THE NATION MUST RESCUE ITS SCHOOLS 

All this is simply a way of saying that education is a national matter. 
The man who denies that at this hour is not worth listening to. The man 
who denies that education is a national matter is capable of denying that 
our Army and Navy are national matters, of thinking that our states and 
towns and cities, left to themselves, could carry on the war. Which is 
not to imply for a moment that education is merely a national matter. May 
the time never come when the people in this locality or that lose control over 
the teaching of their own children. But the child is of concern to a wider 
region than the place in which he is born ; and the wealth of a community 
is no measure of the promise of its human material. Can we permit boys 
and girls of rare gifts, not to mention average boys and girls, just because 
they happen to have been born on the outskirts of the country to have only 
the outskirts of an education? Those boys and girls are the nation's 
highest assets. The nation must do its share toward bearing the burden of 
their training. The nation, the state, and the locality each has its func- 
tion. The nation, either directly or thru the states, must subsidize and 
stimulate the struggling community, holding it meanwhile to the highest 
standards; the state, up to the limit of its power, must do the same; while 
the locality must be lookt to to preserve the principles of variety and indi- 
viduality against the encroachments of too great centralization. Just 
now, however, it is the nation that must take the initiative and lead the 
way — if for no other reason than because, at a moment when immediate 
action is half the battle, legal and constitutional restrictions tie the hands of 
many of the states and threaten a delay that will be fatal. 

But suppose the nation cannot be made to see its duty. Then there is 
only one other way, the second of the two methods already mentioned: 
the teachers, by concerted action and the application of the principle of 
collective bargaining, must compel the nation to wake up. 

But surely this will not be necessary. The war is training the national 
imagination to see things on a new scale. It is no longer a day when we 
say, "This ought to be done. We will do it, provided we can get the money. ^' 
It is a day rather when we say of whatever is vital to the public welfare, 
"Let this be done." And then we get the money. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



It is a day of big things. It is preeminently a day when those who are 
serving the state must be granted the right of way. The teachers of the 
country are not only serving the state now; they have been serving it all 
their lives. They are the captains of the army of understanding: not alone 
of that technical understanding upon which military victory depends, but of 
that larger human understanding upon which depends the whole hope and 
future of the world. If we spend billions to save the world, can we not 
spend millions to make the world worth saving ? If we pour forth our 
treasure without stint to those who shape our steel and iron, can we not 
grant at least a living wage to those who are molding our life itself ? The 
nation must come to the rescue of its schools. For a nation without educa- 
tion is a coast without a lighthouse. 

TEACHERS' SALARIES AND THE COST OF LIVING, 1918 

INCREASE IN THE COST OF LIVING 

In 1913 the Committee of the National Education Association on 
Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions publisht an extended report 
which subsequently has been widely circulated and effectively used thruout 
the country. The last year for which figures were obtainable at the time of 
the completion of this report was 19 11. From the latter year until near 
the end of 1915 there was a slow upward movement of prices, both whole- 
sale and retail, in the United States. So gradual was this movement, 
however, that it did not justify any large revision of the conclusions reached 
in the report of 1913. During the years 1916 and 1917, however, there 
has occurred an extremely rapid rise of prices, a rise so great and so sudden 
that it makes imperative a new and thorogoing study of the whole situation 
as it affects the teachers of the country. 

The skyrocketing of prices which we are now experiencing is graphically 
presented in Chart I,' herewith, which shows the movement in the wholesale 
market of the United States from 1890 to 1917 inclusive. From 1890 to 
1897 prices declined. Between the latter low-level year and 191 1, the 
last year for which figures were available when our earlier report was pre- 
pared, there was an increase of 44. i per cent in wholesale prices. The year 

1912 showed an increase of 6.5 per cent over 191 1, but during the years 

1913 and 1914 wholesale prices actually declined slightly. For 1915 they 
were still slightly lower than for 1912. But the two succeeding years show 
an upward rush that dwarfs all movements recorded during the whole 
period of twenty-seven years. To illustrate: From 1897, the year of lowest 
prices, to 1915, wholesale prices advanst 51.6 per cent, an average of less 
than 3 per cent a year. During the two years from 1915 to 1917 alone 
they advanst 42.8 per cent, an average of 21.4 per cent a year. To put 
the matter in another way, the upward movement of prices has been more 

' This chart brings down to date the diagram presented on p. s. National Education Association Report 
on Salaries and Cost of Living, 1913. 



lO 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



than seven times as rapid during the last two years as it was during the 
preceding eighteen years of increasing wholesale quotations. The fact may 
seem astounding, but it is none the less true that wholesale prices in the 
United States were more than two and one-half times, exactly 2 . 65, higher 
in 19 1 7 than they were twenty years earlier. 



























CHART 


I 
























270 








































































































































































250 














































































































240 














































































































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INDEX NUMBERS 
















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RELATIVE RR/CES OR 
ALL COMMOO/T/ES 














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180 






















































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150 














































































































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/ 


\ 


^ 


















































/ 


























— ■ 


V 










'■ 










y 




































S 


, 














/ 












































\, 










/ 


/ 
















. 




























s 


. 








/ 






































90 












\ 




y 






























































































80 
















































































































70 

























































OOCO COCOOO 000000 cooo 



From the point of view of the teacher the significance of these figures is 
unmistakable. Taking the country as a whole, strenuous efforts were 
necessary to keep salaries advancing as rapidly as prices during the period 
of comparatively slow upward movement. Not always indeed was the 
advance of income kept even with the necessary increase of expenditure. 
But to meet an upward rush so rapid as that from the beginning of 19 16 on, 
it is manifest that almost superhuman efforts must be put forth. It was 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



II 



hard to climb to the summit of the PeHon of high prices reacht in the years 
iQii to 1915. Now suddenly Ossa has been heapt upon Pelion, and the 
teachers of the country must begin a vastly more difficult climb. 

Some further analysis of the developments of the last two years is neces- 
sary. First, it may be noted that figures dealing wth retail prices confirm 

CHART II 



i8s 
180 
17s 
170 

i6s 
160 
ISS 
ISO 

145 



•5 140 



130 

I 25 





-■ 


T 




IT I 














































1 


1 










i 1 1 INDEX /VC 


/MBERS j 1 










i' FtET-y^/L Pt 


R/CCS \ 










j^v£/RAOc roR ya 


ARS ISII-/7 /NCL. 










By iioNrMs 1 


0/3->7//WCi.. 1 i 










fVMrX*' RC*tC*V-auMCMJ 


' i-Aao*t OK^narica , { 


j_L 








1 1 1 




""T ' " 








T 1 if 1 




1 
























ji 










1 












^ 1 


Xlli- 












y 












, r , , 














1 1 


....JI4I 












i 










Lj I-- -- 


1 .. 
























_ 










T 


i 








__..4. 


:::::::::::+::::::::: :::r:::: 










T t .' ^ 








1 _ 1 1 .. .1 










i ii Jit 










1 1! 


" """'t T ' 






"1 T""":r::::iiii 


_^ .. ..| 1 _ 














1 1 


1 ::::::;.::: 


IIIIIMIIII 1 










T ^.\ ::::::::: \ 










T ^-' 










Stt-t^-J^^ 








/H 1 


J \ !/ 








1 /' l\ 


T^ 1\ / 














i.airi i\/ 


/ '" I'V'ii! 










■ J-l 








J i i'i 


It ' 




i 




li 


1 1 Tr I ± L T TT ' 



IQI4 

Years 



igi6 



the observations made with regard to wholesale prices during this period. 
Thus in the case of the retail prices of twenty- two principal articles of food, 
the general level for December, 19 17, as shown by the figures of the United 
States Bureau of Labor,' is 50 per cent higher than for December, 1915. 

» These statements are based upon figures presented by the monthly review, February, 1918, of the 
Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor, (see Chart II). The March number of this 
review shows that on January 15, 1918, the retail price of food had made a further increase above the level for 
December 15, 1917, of 2 per cent. 



12 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



Chart III shows in detail the movement of wholesale prices by months 
from January, 1913, to December, 1917. The figures upon, which it is 
based cover 296 commodities of all kinds, including farm products, food, 
cloths and clothing, fuel and lighting, nietals and metal products, lumber 



CHART III 



r 








"T[ .— ^.......— - 




iSs 






















K;:: 


180 1 










[\\ 















I7S 




1 


























• 
















TfiS 








/A/0£\ N 


UMBERS j 










"""I WHOLESAU. 


7 PRICES H [hi \ 


160 








AVERAOe FOR rEAf\ 


'S 49//-/r//'^CLC/S/V£ 












uc3rtjtsaftamr/orK3 i 










reo-mta./* 


wwr« '' 














150 










f 
























... . ... X- --4 - -- 


145 










/ 




































:::::::::::::::::t: :::::::::::: 












.. .. t 












1 i 












1* 












__j_ 
























" -- 












,=^ 












f -t 












J 1 












. .. ._ y _ ... .. 




































t 












_/.\ - + .,.„ji.j^. - 


100 


_ ": „..,<:..:ur 








Itv / ^1>M 1 


, .:. z.Vj^.7\' if 




\.' T «;:: 


?:::? !!_:_._.!. 


95 
















1 \ 




00 




t 


I 








< •2. O 



1914 
Years 



IQl6 



and building materials, drugs and chemicals, house-furnishing goods, and 
miscellaneous articles. An increase of the cost of such basic materials 
must of course be reflected in the retail prices of all commodities derived 
from them. The general level of wholesale prices is shown by these figures 
of the Bureau of Labor to be not less than 72 per cent higher in December, 
1917, than in December, 1915. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



13 



"This increase (of wholesale prices) has been particularly great," 
according to the Bureau of Labor, "among farm products, foods, clothing, 
metal products, drugs, and chemicals" — all articles, with the exception of 
metal products, which enter largely into the teacher's budget. Some of 



CHART IV 



27° ■ M i 1 ||!l f 1 


^ .„._.II 1 llil!.Ttll t t 


s6o ^ ^n^ 1 ^ .ir , - ■ - -- -^ 

_L_[ ' 1 ' 1 




250 pp T --- - --^ - __ ,__.__ _j_ . 




240 — ■ -|- 




230 " ' ' ----- -- - - . . ... 






1_ ^WHOLESALE PR/CES j 


^^^ 1 aro^foups or cof^MOo/nes ^ 




l.UMO£R S aa/LOZ/VG /t^TC/ffAl. —— — 




190 1 ■srmr/sncs—jneOk/a¥9,^*m»^^ ' \ 


, ..i:::::::::::::::::::::::::: --------/- ii"T'1 




+ + 1 ^._ — +4.-4- A 


170 -- -- ---(- --- - - -■}-- +--' — - — --- - 

^_ . -_, L L- . .t. _ J.. 1 _,! 


Tt TT ?^ i 


. ' li ^ j_ -L J 


^ ' - ' ' 


''° ..::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::":":'i""""1/ : 1""" 


,_ J .,. J. 1 1 


140 /'J — " tt 


T 1' 1 1 /'" 


130 -j-+ - ------ --, — ^. . _. 4 — _ _. .. ... 


T t ■ t 1,1 


"° -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::i;±::;Lt:::::::::::::::::::::::"'"" 


^ . / / ^ 


"° -:::...:.:t::::_..:::tt' :::ttr'-?">' t 




t-i---. c ^ ^^-v y 1 




-.,.-... .,,„,,-_-.-^^ j 




\-^' """ l"" "" -^ 







1916 

Years 



igi8 



the details of the movements of wholesale prices by special groups of 
commodities are shown in Charts IV and V. Thus from December, 1915, 
to December, 191 7, lumber and building materials advanst 39. i per cent, 
fuel and lighting 59 . 3 per cent, food 66 . 6 per cent, house furnishings 73 . 2 
per cent, cloths and clothing 92.5 per cent, and farm products, 98.1 per 
cent. 



14 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



It is a matter of common knowledge that there has been no recession of 
prices in the few months which have elapst since December, 1917, and this 
popular impression is confirmed by Bradstreet's index numbers, which are 
obtainable for a more recent date than the figures furnished by the govern- 

CHART V 




H^ < ^ O ^ < A 
I9I3 



o 






•c >. ^ 

ft -g o 

< K=. O 

1916 
Years 



^ St ^ X 
•-. < I-, O 



^ O ^ < A O 



1918 



ment. Bradstreet's figures are based upon ninety-six different commodities, 
including many kinds of food products, thirteen metals, eleven chemicals 
and drugs, seven building materials, and numerous other articles. For 
December, 191 7, this authority quoted an index number of 17.5962. On 
May I, 19 18, it had advanst to 18.9133. This means a price increase of 
very nearly 7^ per cent within a period of five months. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 1 5 

With the continuance of the war, in all probability new higher levels will 
be recorded. Further increases as rapid as those of 1916 and 1917 are by 
no means impossible. Even after the termination of the war it is probable 
that prices will remain high during the subsequent years of readjustment 
and reconstruction. For an indefinitely long period, perhaps from fifty 
to one hundred years, the payment of interest and sinking-fund charges on 
war debts will continue to exert an effect upon the level of world-prices. 

There is consequently slight ground, if any, for the expectation that 
prices may decline as rapidly as they have advanst during the last two years. 
On the contrary, every circumstance indicates that they will continue to 
increase indefinitely and remain fixt at a high level for a considerable period 
thereafter. Teachers and others with fixt incomes must deal with the 
situation from this point of view, or else prepare to suffer a further reduc- 
tion of real wages, i.e., purchasing power of salary, in addition to the 
severe losses already inflicted upon them by the price movements of the 
last two years. 

WIDENING OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT 

Coincident with the rapid increase in wholesale and retail prices in 
19 16 and 19 1 7 has occurred a tremendous expansion of the demand for the 
services not only of men but of women as well. Men have volunteered 
and have been drafted by the hundreds of thousands for our new Army and 
Navy. Back of those in the fighting line such directly auxiliary industries 
as shipbuilding, transportation, and the innumerable branches of munitions 
production have absorbed a large part of the labor force of the country. 
For the latter purposes, shipbuilding, transportation, and munitions pro- 
duction, the supply of men has not been adequate. At least industries of 
this character are making vigorous and systematic efforts to enlist women as 
workers. More recently agriculture has begun to bid, almost frantically, 
for the services of women. 

Upon the teaching profession the effects of higher prices and wider 
opportunities for employment have been complementary and cumulative. 
Of course the results are more markt in industrial than in agricultural 
districts, but they are apparent to a considerable degree the country over. 
Higher prices prevail generally, even if wider opportunities for employ- 
ment are more or less localized. Fairly well-defined cases in which teachers 
have been forst out of the schools by sheer inability to meet the increasing 
cost of living are of common occurrence. Far more numerous, however, 
are the cases in which the lure of high wages in industrial undertakings, 
with the hope of future rapid increases, has led teachers to give up their 
profession. 

As tangible illustrations the following cases may be cited from a city 
which had a population of 38,537 in 19 10, and which, as a consequence 
of its rapid industrial development, particularly along the lines of ship- 



i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



building and the manufacture of munitions, now claims from 60,000 to 
75,000 or more. The city referred to is in the center of the Philadelphia 
shipbuilding district. An investigation of this district just made by the 
Bureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the Shipbuilding Wage 
Adjustment Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation shows that 
expenditures per family for clothing" showed an increase in 191 7 of 51.33 
per cent over 19 14; expenditures for furniture and furnishings an increase 
of 49.84 per cent, for food of 54.41 per cent, for housing of 2.60^ per cent, 
for fuel and light of 21.54 per cent, for miscellaneous purposes of 43.81 
per cent. For the whole 512 families studied, expenditures in 1917 showed 
an increase of 43 . 81 per cent over those for 19 14. It is from a community 
of this character, with a rapidly increasing population and with industrial 
wages also rising rapidly, that the following actual cases have been taken. 

A fifth-grade woman teacher, of ten years' experience, salary $682 . 50 a 
year ($65.00 per month, 10^ months a year), accepted a clerical position 
in a shipbuilding establishment at $1144.00 a year ($22.00 per week, 52 
weeks a year). 

A special teacher of drawing in intermediate grades, at a salary of 
$682 . 50 per year ($65 . 00 per month, io| months a year), accepted a clerical 
position, taking charge of pay-rolls, in a shipbuilding establishment at a 
salary of $900.00 per year ($75.00 per month, 12 months a year). This 
teacher, a woman of thirty-seven years of age, had taught successfully for 
fifteen years. Her only preparation for a business career was a brief course 
which she had once taken in a business school and two summers spent as 
bookkeeper at a summer hotel. Nevertheless her services were welcomed 
by the shipbuilding company and an increase was promist beyond her initial 
salary of $900.00. 

A drawing supervisor, woman, of nine years' experience, salary $1050 . 00 
per year ($100 . 00 per month, io| months per year), accepted a position with 
a large chemical concern at a salary of $1250.00 per year, with a further 
increase of $200.00 per year promist. 

A woman teacher in the grades, thirty-four years old, of ten years' 
experience, salary $577.50 ($55.00 per month, io| months per year), had 
taught in a school in the Italian section of the city where she had given most 
useful service and was greatly beloved by the children and parents. She 
possest the qualifications not only of a teacher but of a social worker as 
well. Fond of her profession, she attended summer session in normal school 
at her own expense for two years to secure a higher certificate. Altho 
anxious to continue teaching she found it impossible to maintain a standard 
of living under stress of the higher prices of 19 16 and 19 17. Very reluctantly 
she accepted a position in the office of a shipbuilding concern, at a salary of 

■ The small percentage of increase for housing is probably due to the fact that these families have resided 
in the district studied for some time. As old tenants their rents have not been raised so rapidly as in the case 
of newcomers. Certainly it is true that rentals of many properties in this city have advanst 50 to 100 per cent 
since 1914. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 17 

$1040.00 a year. She found readjustment to new duties less difficult than 
she had anticipated, and she is under no such strain or responsibility in her 
new work as in the schoolroom of a crowded foreign section of the city.' 

In addition to the demands of shipbuilding and munition making, the 
teachers of the city referred to above have recently received a blank form, 
sent out by one of the largest railroad corporations in the country, inquir- 
ing into any qualifications they may possess for any form of railroad work 
and requesting them to register for possible future employment. One 
interesting question propounded in the inquiry blank is, "If satisfied, will 
you remain in the service of the company ?" 

To meet the probable resignation of experienst teachers in this com- 
munity and in others similarly circumstanst, it was proposed at the superin- 
tendents' convention recently held in Atlantic City that girls who have just 
graduated from high school might be employed, in case they could spend a 
summer in pedagogical preparation. After meeting the expense thus en- 
tailed those able and willing to do so might receive appointments at $45.00 
per month, payable 10^ months annually.^ Considering that in this com- 
munity there is eager competition among a number of large industrial con- 
cerns for the services of unskilled women workers at wages of from $15.00 
to $18.00 per week, and that girl munition workers of slight experience may 
easily earn $20.00 per week on a piecework basis, it does not seem likely 
that there will be any great demand, even by scantily prepared high-school 
graduates, for teaching positions. In rural communities, doubtless, this 
kind of teaching material would be more largely available. 

In this connection a story recently circulated regarding the attitude of a 
publishing house engaged largely in the textbook business shows what may 
be expected in the near future. A representative of this publishing firm, 
delegated especially to visit college and university professors and ascertain 
what texts they were producing or could be induced to write, was recently 
met with the query, "What sort of books does your firm want?" To this 
the agent of the publishing house replied: 

We are not in the slightest doubt as to what kind of te.\tbooks we want for the near 
future. We want the most elementary treatises that can be written. We want A-B-C 
books. Books that presuppose a minimum of intelligence on the part of the teachers. 
Books that will teach themselves. In short, fool-proof books. And we want this kind 
of textbook because we realize that with present prices and present salaries we are going 
to have to deal with just that type of teacher for the ne.xt ten or fifteen years. 

The same problem, from a wholly different angle, is suggested by the 
story of a high-school girl who was encouraged by her aunt to continue her 
education in college so as to prepare for teaching. The aunt had been 
teaching some twenty years and was getting only about $500 a year as a 

■ The cases of individual teachers cited above were supplied by Miss Lillian Dannaker, supervising 
principal, Chester Schools, Larkin School Building. 

' In Pennsylvania the minimum state salary for provisional certificate is $45.00. 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



salary. The young high-school girl replied to her aunt, "Why should I 
go to college to prepare to be a teacher when I can get right now by working 
in a mill more than you are making when you have been teaching for twenty 
years ? " The high-school girl might have added that she could get employ- 
ment the year around in a mill and could get employment for only eight or 
nine months in school teaching. The superintendent of schools at Benld, 
111., reports that he excuses two or three boys in the grades at three o'clock 
every day to work on the "second shift" at the mines. They work from 
3.30 to 11.30 P.M., make $3 to $5, and attend school also. Mr. Elmer 
Coatney, a teacher in the Benld Township High School, recently urged a 
boy who had left school to work at the mine to return to school. He 
endeavored to convince the boy of the need and value of an education. But 
the boy replied, "Mr. Coatney, I am making more money without an educa- 
tion than you are making with one." This is the truth, although Mr. 
Coatney is paid $100 a month, which is more than the average wages of 
high-school teachers iii that locality. 

Remember that these districts are doing the best they can under the 
present legal limitations on the tax rate. 

As a result of the increast demand for their services a spirit of unrest, 
entirely natural under the circumstances, has taken possession of the teach- 
ing staff of many cities. There is a widespread inclination to try out the 
opportunities for industrial employment during the coming summer. 
Those who find the change advantageous will resign within the time limit 
fixed in their contracts toward the end of the coming vacation. Not until 
schools reopen in the fall of this year, therefore, will the full extent of the 
industrial draft be apparent. 

Only a part of those who experiment with industrial employment will 
abandon the profession of teaching. A comparison of the advantages and 
disadvantages of the two methods of earning a livelihood may throw some 
light on the probable number of resignations from the teaching staffs of 
industrial centers. In most business establishments the hours of work are 
from 8 : 00 a.m. to 5 : 00 p.m., with one hour for lunch. The hours which the 
teacher is required to spend in the classroom are indeed much shorter, but 
when one counts in the additional duties performed by a teacher out of 
hours — such as preparing lessons, grading papers, and meeting the innumer- 
able professional demands, direct and indirect,^ upon her time — the advan- 
tage which she enjoys in this respect is comparatively slight. Moreover, it 
is generally admitted that the nervous strain ajid burden of responsibihty 
carried by the industrial worker of corresponding salary are much lighter. 
Of course the teacher's vacation periods are considerably longer than those 
which are customary in industry. However, industrial employes are some- 
times given full pay for the customary two weeks allowed during the 

■ See "The Teacher's Working Day," Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, 
pp. 138-56. Publisht by the National Education Association in 1913. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 19 

summer. True, the teacher has two months or so of summer vacation, but 
without pay, and if dependent wholly on her own resources she sometimes 
finds it difl&cult to meet current expenditures during this period. More- 
over, required professional training in summer schools, normal schools, 
etc., makes considerable inroads into the apparently long vacation she 
enjoys. 

Much is made, perhaps too much, of the alleged better social position 
enjoyed by the teacher as compared with the industrial employe. However, 
a better social position without the means of maintaining the standard of I 
living associated therewith in the public mind becomes a burden rather thanr"'^ 
an advantage. Often it leads to pitiful little economies, unworthy shifts 
and devices that harm one's health, lame one's self-esteem, and reveal 
themselves to the scornful laughter of the prosperous and unfeeling. 

Much has been made also of the greater social service rendered by the 
teacher. It is a thoroly justifiable appeal, perhaps the highest that can 
be made to those qualified for the duties of our profession, and in response 
to this appeal such heroines of real life as Deborah of Ernest Poole's His 
Family will continue to give themselves to the care of their big school 
families. But this is no longer the age of asceticism. Nor is there any 
necessary logical connection between the call of social service and poverty. 
Finally it must be emphasized that at the present time and so long as the 
war shall last many industries may make a direct and energetic appeal to 
the patriotism of their workers, just as the teaching profession has always 
done. This is preeminently true of farming, shipbuilding, and the many 
branches of munitions making. The former advantage which teaching 
enjoyed in its broad appeal for patriotic and social service is therefore 
shared for the time being by many industries which are competing for the 
services of teachers. 

Finally, when it comes to a comparison of tangible rewards all the 
advantages are on the side of industrial work. The latter usually ofifers 
a substantial increase at the beginning over the salary of the teacher. 
It may not offer such security of tenure as teaching, but for an indefinitely 
long period in the future industry as a whole is likely to expand. Besides 
larger initial salaries, promotions in industrial employment are likely to 
come more frequently, and when they do come they usually bring with them 
much more substantial increases of salary than those promist by the average 
schedule of teachers' salaries, with its theoretically admirable but personally 
somewhat invidious groups, grading, experience, and efficiency ratings. At 
a time like the present, with new higher price levels recorded from day to day, 
the likeUhood of occasional substantial raises of pay possesses an appeal 
much stronger than during periods of stable prices. All things considered, 
therefore, industrial employers are in a position to make a much stronger bid 
for the services of teachers than ever before. And the economic qualities of 
teachers are precisely such as to make them especially desirable employes. 



20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

They possess a greater share of native intelHgence than most applicants 
for such positions; their education is considerably better; they do not 
expect to maintain excessively high standards of living and consequently 
are satisfied with moderate salaries; and finally they are thoroly dependable 
workers, capable of accepting heavy responsibilities and trained to stick to a 
job until it is completed. In the light of these admirable industrial qualities 
it is not strange that various kinds of business have begun to seek recruits 
for their working forces from the ranks of school teachers. 

THE QUESTION OF METHOD 

The two factors already considered, rapidly increasing prices and 
widened opportunities for employment, have brought about an acute 
economic crisis so far as teachers are concerned. They, are inexorably 
forcing out some teachers, while many others are being attracted into 
business enterprises by the lure of new industrial opportunities. 

Under the stress of these economic forces the question of the unioniza- 
tion of teachers has naturally come into prominence; indeed, such a move- 
ment for the union of teachers in affiliation with the American Federation 
of Labor has recently been making rapid progress. Nowhere is this more 
apparent than in the city of Washington. In Washington teachers have 
been drafted from the schools into many branches of the civil service by the 
simple process of taking civil service examinations. Teachers whose 
minimum salary is $500 are metamorphosed into government clerks at a 
salary of $1200. The result, not unnaturally, has been a demand for a 
large increase of teachers' salaries, say from the minimum of $500 to $1000. 
This demand has been presented very ably and effectively by the unions of 
school teachers in Washington, and they have organized in its behalf a 
very effective and sympathetic propaganda. 

The movement has spread rapidly. Of recent date, a roster of local 
unions includes the names of twenty-four such bodies. Not only large 
cities such as New York, Chicago, and Washington are represented, but also 
cities of the second class such as Chattanooga, Scranton, Schenectady, 
Gary, Valparaiso, Norfolk, Va., and Vallejo, Calif. The literature of the 
unionist organizations is conservative in tone. One need not be disturbed 
by the fear that they will resort to undignified and violent measures. 
Unions formed of American teachers may be depended upon to pursue a 
wise, patient, and purely democratic policy. Moreover, what the teachers 
of the country are asking of the people— their ultimate employers— is not 
askt in selfishness but in the widest interest of the people themselves. 
Public schools are the chief bulwark of liberty. If the teachers of the 
country are ruined economically the schools will fail and democracy itself 
will be imperiled. 

The economic crisis which confronts teachers now is so great and so 
immediate that it seems altogether unlikely that the advocacy of higher 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 21 

salaries for teachers is likely to be overdone in the near future. It is true 
that agitation for wage increases during war times should be made only 
after due deliberation and on the most compelling grounds. But it is 
certain that the teachers of the country are justified in taking such action 
at the present time. Nor is there the least likelihood that such increases as 
they may secure will be unduly high. In no sense will teachers become 
war profiteers. On the contrary the strongest cooperation of all effective 
means for the raising of salaries will hardly avail to secure adequate results 
even to the extent of restoring to them the purchasing power which they 
possest in 19 15. 

While many of us are strongly inclined to favor agitation within strictly 
professional lines rather than along the lines associated with the labor 
movement, we must recognize, however, that in certain communities the 
union method may be the better method. At least we must be prepared 
to welcome the cooperation of the new method in every feasible way. The 
National Education Association should therefore make special study of 
the progress of unionism among teachers, the methods employed, and the 
possibilities of cooperation therewith, and publish a report on these topics 
for the guidance of its members and teachers everywhere in dealing with 
this new form of organization. Manifestly in thqse communities where 
teachers' unions are formed such unions are likely to become very effective 
centers for propaganda in favor of higher salaries for teachers. Merely by 
cooperating with the unions along statistical lines the National Education 
Association should be able to render valuable service without unnecessarily 
indorsing all the methods which the unions may decide to use in furthering 
their own interests. 

At the present moment the three great material issues confronting 
teachers, namely, salaries, tenure, and pensions, have shifted largely in 
importance, as compared with the year 19 14. Of the three, salaries are 
much the most important and are likely to remain so for an indefinitely 
long time. As for tenure, instead of teachers worrying about that subject, 
it is the school boards and superintendents of the country who have to 
worry lest they may not be able to retain their teaching staffs. With 
teachers leaving in large numbers for industrial and other employment, 
pensions cease to be of any great interest for the time being. The situa- 
tion is a difl&cult one. Only by boldly and resourcefully standing out as 
leader of the teaching profession in this emergency can the National Educa- 
tion Association justify its existence and guarantee its future. Indeed it 
is only by such a policy, pushed suflSiciently to secure large advances of 
salary, that the National Education Association can hold teachers to the 
professional point of view and to professional methods of taking action in 
their own interest and the interest of the community. Otherwise unionism 
will dominate the situation, as indeed it should if it proves the only means 
to rescue the teaching profession from economic deterioration. For it 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



must be rescued from the impending bankruptcy if it is to continue to 
perform the great, aye, the indispensable, function which has been intrusted 
to it by the democracy of America. 

HOW IS THE MONEY TO BE OBTAINED TO PAY ADEQUATE 
SALARIES TO TEACHERS? 



How is the money to be obtained to pay adequate salaries to teachers ? 
The 19 13 report of the Committee of the National Education Association 
on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living proved in detail, what many would 
have been willing to admit without asking for figures, that even before 
the war the teachers of the country were inadequately paid. But the war, 
as the preceding section of the present report amply demonstrates, has 
turned a situation that was bad into one that is critical. Something imme- 
diate and radical must be done or there is danger of educational collapse. 

School officials, as a rule, recognize this danger and are willing enough 
to pay better salaries to teachers. But their pertinent question is, "Where 
is the money to come from?" This is a practical problem that must be 
answered in a practical way. Before taking it up it is desirable to know how 
much money will be required, first, to meet the needs of our existing school 
system in the present emergency; secondly, to extend the scope of public 
education to meet twentieth-century demands; and, thirdly, to pay adequate 
salaries to the teachers. It is necessary also to know what has aheady been 
done toward obtaining the necessary funds. 

In order that the committee might have up-to-date information con- 
cerning what has been done, and opinions from all over the country as to 
what should be done, the following questions were sent to each state super- 
intendent. 

1. About what percentage of increase of teachers' salaries, including supervisors 
and city, town, and county superintendents, is necessary to meet present war conditions: 

a) Elementary and rural teachers ? 

b) Other persons engaged in public-school work ? 

2. Approximate amount expended for salaries in your state according to last report: 
a) Raised by local taxation. 

h) Appropriated by the state. 

3. Are the laws of your state such that local communities can levy and collect suffi- 
cient funds to pay adequate salaries to teachers: 

a) In rural communities ? 

b) In towns and smaller cities ? 

c) In large cities ? 

4. Are there adequate funds available for additional state support ? 

5. State briefly the means that are being taken in your state to secure adequate 
fimds for teachers' salaries to meet the present emergency. 

6. Do you favor national aid to the different states? 

(A bill is being prepared by the National Education Association Commission provid- 
ing for the appropriation by Congress of $100,000,000.00 for this purpose.) 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 23 

Replies have been received from more than half of the state superin- 
tendents representing every section, and their answers have been tabulated 
in brief form (see Appendixes I and II). 

If we consider the answers to the first question, we find that in order 
to meet war conditions it is necessary, in the opinion of the state superin- 
tendents, to increase the salaries of elementary and rural teachers from 10 to 
50 per cent and those of high-school teachers, supervisors, town, city, and 
county superintendents from 10 to 50 per cent. If a rough average is 
taken, the state superintendents recommend that elementary and rural 
teachers should have their salaries increast about t,^ per cent and all others 
about 20 per cent. According to the publisht statistics (1914-15) the aggre- 
gate amount expended for teachers' salaries in the United States was 
$345,006,445.' Therefore, according to the estimate of the state superin- 
tendents, it will require from $100,000,000 to $115,000,000 to meet the 
present emergency on account of the rapid increase in the cost of living. 

But there is another and a better way of approximating the amount 
of money required to meet the war emergency. On April 30, 19 18, the 
Railroad Wage Commission of the United States made a report to the 
Director General of Railroads relative to the wages of railroad employes 
and the cost of living. " We have had a most exhaustive study made of the 
cost of living today," says the Commission, "as contrasted with the cost 
of living in the latter part 191 5 To our mind it conclusively estab- 
lishes two things: (i) that the cost of living has increast disproportionately 
among those of small incomes, and (2) that there is a point up to which it is 
essential that the full increast cost shall be allowed as a wage increase, 
while from this point on the increase may be gradually diminished."^ As 
a result of this study the commission made a table setting forth the rate of 
increase of all wages up to $250 per month, the "vanishing-point" so far 
as increases are concerned. This table provided the following:^ 

Monthly Wages Percentage of Increase 

Under $ 46 103 -44* 
$ 46- 79 43 -41 

80- 100 40.44-31.75 

100- 200 31-29- 8.375 
200- 250 8.26-0 

* The increase was $20 per month. 

Applying these schedules to the salaries of teachers and changing monthly 
wages into yearly salaries, we have calculated the increases which it would 
be necessary to make in order that the financial cbndition of the teachers 
in 1918 might be as good as it was in 1915. The amount is $i66,og4,2ii, 

' Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for igiy, II, 54. The aggregate salaries for 1915 
are taken instead of those for 1916 ($364,789,265, on p. 81 of the same report) because the percentage of increase 
in wages of railroad employes is calculated on the 1915 basis by the Railroad Wage Commission. See Report 
of Railroad Wage Commission to the Director General of Railroads, Washington, 1918. 

» See Report of the Railroad Wage Commission for igi8, p. 15. ^ Ibid., pp. 20-26. 



24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

or an increase oj 45.3 per cent. See Appendix III for detailed statement 
by states. 

But what about the extension of the pubhc school system? What 
amount of money will be needed to bring our education up to the level 
of twentieth-century demands ? 

There is space here to enumerate only a few of the most pressing of the • 
educational questions with which we are face to face. Our foreign-born 
population must be Americanized. The widespread prevalence of illiteracy 
must be reduced to a minimum. Industrial education, in which we have as 
yet made scarcely a beginning, must be extended; our entire industrial 
future is contingent on it. An adequate system of physical education 
must be establisht and developt; the health and vigor of our people, per- 
haps the very endurance of the Republic, depend upon it. The school term 
in a majority of the states must be lengthened. Better attendance laws 
must be enacted, and more effectively enforst. This last point is a matter 
of prime importance, the fact being that, altho the average school term in 
1 9 16 was eight months (160.3 days), yet the average daily attendance 
of all of the pupils enrolled was only six months (120 . 9 days). There were 
sixteen states in which the average attendance was less than five months 
and one in which it was only 72.9 days.^ 

The matter of illiteracy deserves a special word owing to conditions 
recently revealed in a letter of Secretary Lane addrest to the President of 
the United States and to the chairmen of the educational committees of the 
House and Senate. The letter states: 

"The war has brought facts to our attention which are ahnost unbelievable and that 
are in themselves accusatory. There were in the United States in 1910, 5,516,163 persons 
over ten years of age who were unable to read or write in any language. There are now 
nearly 700,000 men of draft age in the United States who cannot read or write in English 
or any other language. Over 4,600,000 of the illiterates of this country were twenty 

years of age or more The percentage of illiterates varies from i . 7 in Iowa to 

29 in Louisiana. In the first draft between 30,000 and 40,000 illiterates were brought 
into the army, and approximately as many more near illiterates. 

They cannot sign their names. 

They cannot read their orders posted daily. 

They cannot read their manual of arms. 

They cannot read their letters or write home. 

They cannot understand the signals or follow the signal corps in time of battle." 

The urgent necessity for reducing illiteracy is further emphasized by 
the fact that the number of illiterates actually increast in sixteen states from 
1900 to 1 9 10. These states are all in the North and West and comprise 
several of the greatest states in the Union — New York 27.6 per cent, Penn- 
sylvania 18.3 per cent, Illinois 6.5 per cent, Massachusetts 5.6 per cent, 
New Jersey 31.0 per cent, Connecticut 24.9 per cent, California 27.0 per 
cent, and the state of Washington 44.7 per cent. Altho the South still 

■ See Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education for 1017, II, 75- 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 2$ 

has a very high per centage of illiteracy, yet the density of illiterate popula- 
tion in the great manufacturing states of the North exceeds that of the 
states in the Black Belt of the South. The former has 9 . 8 illiterate persons 
to the square mile, the latter 7 . i to the square mile.' 

The bare enumeration of these facts shows that the scope of education 
must be greatly extended. What will it cost ? No one knows. Perhaps 
$75,000,000 a year, perhaps more. But it must be done, cost what it may. 

So far we have considered only what amounts of money are necessary 
to meet the war emergency due to the high cost of living and to extend the 
necessary scope of education. To rescue the profession of teaching from 
bankruptcy will require $330,000,000 to $400,000,000 in addition to the 
amounts named above. Few persons have ever taken the pains to study 
the financial condition of the public-school teachers of the United States. 
No one has ever made an exhaustive study of the distribution of salaries, 
but until such a study is made, it is impossible to present the facts in their 
true light. The best we have are averages, and we use those for 1914-15. 
But the mere statement of these averages is pathetically eloquent. 

The average salary for all of the 622,321 public-school teachers in 1915 was $543.31. 

That is, $1 . 73 per working day thruout the year. 

That is, $1 .48 per living day thruout the year. 

There was not a single state in the Union in which the average salary of the teachers 
was $1000. 

There were only two states, California and New York, in which the average salary 
of the teachers exceeded $900. 

There were only three other states, Washington, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, 
in which the average salary of the teachers was between $800 and $900. 

There were only three other states, Nevada, Arizona, and Rhode Island, in which 
the average salary of the teachers of each was between $700 and $800. 

But that is not all of the story. 

There were twenty-nine states in which the average salary of the teachers was below 
the average for the United States. 

There were twenty-three states in which the average salary was below $500. 
There were twelve states in which the average salary was below $400. 
There were three states in which the average salary was below $300. 
There was one state in which the average daily wage was 64 cents! 

If these are averages of all teachers, including principals and superin- 
tendents, what must be the economic condition of more than 350,000 of the 
poorest-paid teachers of the United States!^ 

But the foregoing statistics represented conditions in 1915. What are 
the present conditions relative to the salaries of teachers ? 

For the most part we do not know. The most roseate optimist we have 
heard of says that salaries have advanst 10 per cent within the last three 

' For charts and tables relative to illiteracy see Appendixes IV and V. 

' These statements are based on the table of statistics found on p. so, Vol. II, of the Report of the United 
Slates Commissioner of Education for 1917. For detailed statement by states see Appendix III. 



26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

years. If that is true, the average daily wage of the teachers in the United 
States is now $1.63 instead of $1.48/ 

But we do know something definite about the present salaries of the 
elite of our profession, the salaries of the teachers in 320 cities of the United 
States. These data have been collected within the last sixty days by the 
National Education Association Commission on the National Emergency. 
These data have been collected in such a manner as to show the number of 
teachers receiving salaries of different amounts. The actual facts are these : 

The median salary for 59,020 elementary teachers in the city schools is $816. 19. 

The median salary for 3779 intermediate teachers in the city schools is $899.42. 

The median salary for 13,976 high-school teachers in the city schools is $1249.50. 

There are 19,017 teachers, including 338 high-school teachers, in the city schools 
who receive less than $700 per year. 

There are 2931, including 2,3 high-school teachers in the city schools, who receive 
less than $500 per year.^ 

While we do not know the worst conditions relative to teachers' salaries, 
yet this study shows the actual condition of the best-paid group of teachers 
in the United States to be bordering on bankruptcy. 

But what was a living salary in 1915 ? What is a living salary in 1918 ? 

Here again we must rely on the Railroad Wage Commission, which says: 

This study of the cost of living was not made from paper statistics exclusively, by 
the gathering of prices, and comparison of theoretical budgets. It was in no inconsider- 
able part an actual study from life Roughly, it may be said that the man who 

received $85 a month on January i, 1916, now needs 40 per cent additional to his wage 
to give him the same living that he had then. Below that wage a larger percentage must 
be allowed, because the opportunity for substitution and other methods of thrift decline 
almost to the vanishing-point, while above that wage a growing proportion of the in- 
crease will go to those things essential to cultured life but not essential to actual living.* 

WHAT CONSTITUTES A MINIMUM WAGE AND A FAIR WAGE FOR TEACHERS? 

Estimates have been made by charity workers and others of the amount 
of earnings needed to keep a family above the pauper or poverty line. 
In 1900, John Mitchell, of the United Mine Workers, stated that a minimum 
wage of $600 a year was necessary for a worker in the anthracite region. 
At about the same time the New York Bureau of Labor estimated $10 
a week or $520 a year as an amount adequate for the necessities of a city 
workingman. Dr. E. T. Devine, Secretary of the Charity Organization 
Society of New York City, estimated $600 as the minimum. Another 
charity official of New York City considered $624 a minimum necessary 
for a family of five. About the same time the Massachusetts Bureau of 
Statistics estimated $724 as a fair living wage for a family of five. These 

» The average salary of all teachers in igi6 was $563 .08, or an increase of 3 . 6 per cent (see Report of the 
United States Commissioner of Education for iQiy, II, 77J. The National Education Association Commission 
reports 23 cities, representing 10,340 teachers, which report no increase at all. See Appendix VI. The 
United States Commissioner of Education has forwarded to this committee data from 108 cities, showing that 
the increases have not been general. It is difficult to make estimates from such data. See Appendix VII. 
For conditions in Missouri see Appendix XI. 

» For table giving distribution of salaries of teachers of 320 cities, see Appendix VIII. 

» Report of the Railroad Wage Commission, p. 16. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 27 

estimates were all made for a period in which prices everywhere were 
materially lower than in 191 5. Furthermore, they were not estimates 
of an ideal standard of comfort for workingmen but represented the amount 
which was considered necessary to keep the families of the individuals 
concerned without providing any surplus for luxuries or comforts. 

NOTES ON WHAT CONSTITUTED A LIVING WAGE FOR TEACHERS IN THE 

YEARS 1915-18 

While the Report of the Railroad Wage Commission does not attempt to 
say what sum represents a hving wage for all the railroad men of the 
country, it does attempt to show how much of an increase in wages will be 
necessary in order to enable the members of the different wage groups to 
secure approximately the same returns in 191 8 as in 191 5. It is manifestly 
unfair to compare the earnings of the teachers of the country with the 
earnings of a heterogeneous group like the railroad employes of the United 
States. It would seem more appropriate to compare teacher's salaries 
with the returns of some one of the groups of railway workers, like that of 
the engineers, or conductors, or even of the brakemen. On page 18 of the 
report of the eight-hour commission, the statement is made that "the 
typical earnings of an eastern freight engineer was around $180 a month, 
and that of the eastern freight brakeman, $100 a month." According to 
the table found on the same page, typical earnings of freight brakemen in 
the southern and western section would be about the same as those in the 
eastern division. The skill required and the degree of intelligence necessary 
to become a railroad brakeman cannot compare with the skill and intel- 
ligence of a teacher; and a comparison of the earnings of the two classes is 
therefore, if unfair at all, unfair to the teacher. On the other hand the 
average wages of all the railway wage earners is not a good criterion since 
the majority of railroad employes are very low grade, unskilled labor like 
section hands, teamsters, and porters. Their pay being very low tends to 
bring down the average of all railroad employes, whereas those branches 
of the service which really require skill or brains are paid at very much 
higher rates. If the wages of a typical freight brakeman are around $100 
a month is it unfair to assume that the typical teacher ought to receive at 
least $85 a month ? If we assume that this was a fair salary in 191 5 for the 
average teacher of the country his annual salary would have amounted 
to $1020 a year. 

The man who received $85 per month, or $1020 per year in 1915, should, 
according to the report, have a 40 per cent increase, or $1428, in 1918.' 

" The Railroad Commission made a study of the budgets of 265 families in diSerent parts of the United 
States (p. 93): 

IS families, income of each less than $600, deficit $ 2647 .gs 

los " " " " from $600 to Siooo, deficit 9991 .15 

14s " " " " " $1000 to $2000, deficit 149 . 20 

Total deficit for 265 families $12,788,20 

This shows that the living wage for a family is not reacht until the income is well above $1000. 



28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

With all the demands made upon teachers, "cultural" as well as those for 
the "essentials of actual living," their increases in salaries should be as 
great as those or railroad employes. On this basis the teachers should 
have received in 1915, not $543, but $1020 a year, that is a total, not of $345,- 
000,000, but of $648,000,000. On the same basis, according to the Railroad 
Commission, they should receive in 1918 an average of $1428, or a total of 
$907,000,000, in order that the average salary may be a living salary. 

But cost what it may, teachers should receive not only a living wage 
but salaries sufficient to enable them to live respectably, to keep abreast of 
the times professionally, and to lay by something for old age. This is not 
only reasonable but necessary if the schools are to fulfil their mission. Your 
committee therefore submits for the indorsement of the National Educa- 
tion Association the following: 

Tentative Program on Salaries 

1. An immediate increase in the salaries of all teachers sufficient to meet the increase 
in the cost of living, these increases to be made on a sliding scale, that is, those receiving 
the lowest salaries to be given the largest percentage of increase. 

2. A minimum salary for all teachers, rural and urban, which will liable them to 
support their families twelve months in the year. 

3. A scale of increases in salary from time to time which will provide teachers with 
a reasonable assurance of a remuneration which will enable them to live appropriately 
without embarrassment, and which will also enable them to lay by something for old 
age. The compensation should be sufficient to warrant yoimg men and young women 
of first-class ability to prepare themselves properly for teaching and to remain in the 
profession after they have once entered it. 

4. After a reasonable probationary period and proper certification, tenure of position 
during efficiency, with a fair chance of advancement to positions of greater importance 
and emolument. 

II 

How can the funds be obtained to carry out such a program ? Let us 
consider only three items: 

Amount paid teachers in 1915 $345,000,000 

Amount necessary, according to Railway Wage Commission, to 

meet increast cost of living in 1915 303,000,000 

Additional amount, required to pay living salaries to teachers in 

1918 259,000,000 

Amount required to extend scope of education (near future) .... 75,000,000 

Total $982,000,000 

If we study the replies of the state superintendents to questions 2 and 4, 
as given above (p. 22), we find that the money for teachers' salaries comes 
(i) from state support and (2) from local taxation; that there is no uni- 
formity among the states as to which of these two parts should be the 
larger; that some states, like Kansas, give no state support whatever, 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 29 

while others, like Pennsylvania, give millions.' We find, moreover, that 
almost without exception there are no additional state funds available for 
school support until there is further legislation.^ This means that in most 
states there is for the ensuing school year but one way to raise the large 
sum of money needed for the immediate emerg^cy, and that is by local 
taxation. 

The answers to question 5, regarding the measures adopted to meet the 
present emergency, are set forth in Appendix II. They are worthy of 
careful study. 

An examination of these answers makes it clear that with the exception 
of Delaware, Maryland, Maine, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and a few 
other states nothing has been done by the legislatures to meet present 
emergencies. In fact, only a few legislatures have been in session since 
war was declared. It is evident then that if funds are to be obtained at all 
for the next school year they must be raised in most states by local taxation. 
But except in the wealthiest communities, to increase local taxation in one year 
sufficiently to raise enough money to increase teachers' salaries 45 per cent is 
an impossibility. The reasons for this are two. In the first place, tax 
oflScials dare not raise the rate so much at a single bound. In the second 
place, legal restrictions in many states forbid the levying of such a tax 
rate. The answer "No" to question 3 shows the states where these legal 
obstacles exist. Salaries, in most places, will be increast more than usual 
this year, but anything approaching a general increase of 45 per cent is 
out of the question until there are radical changes in those state laws that 
at present bar the way.^ 

But even legislation by the difi'erent states will not provide sufficient 
funds to carry out the program as outlined above without imposing undue 
burdens of taxation on the people in many states.-* The faCt is that our pres- 
ent system of school support is breaking down in the present crisis and must 
give way to a new one. And the only new one in sight is the system of 
national aid. The adoption of this system will involve, not only legislation 
on the part of Congress, but an almost complete change of policy of public 
education on the part of the nation. To bring these changes about will 
require the compelling force of an aroused public opinion. Not a moment 

■ Pennsylvania gives $18,000,000. 
' See Appendix I. 

3 The United States Commissioner of Education has just compiled statistics relative to the salary increases 
in 108 cities located in 27 different states. See Appendix VII. His report shows salary schedules, minimum 
and maximum, rather than actual salaries paid, yet even these schedules show that in many cities the increase 
is very small or that there is none at all. The Commission on National Emergency furnishes a list of 23 cities 
which report no increase at all (Appendi.'c VI). Appendix IX, furnisht by Grace C. Forsythe, shows increases 
in teachers' salaries in certain cities; also increase in wages in certain industries. 

4 There is no sort of correlation between the wealth of a community and the number of children to be 
educated. This is true to a less degree in states than in school districts, yet in some states there is nearly 
six times as much wealth per teacher as in others, e.g., Nevada has $671,816.56 of taxable wealth for each 
teacher and North Carolina only $ii7,g47-33, or approximately only one-sixth as much. For the average 
amount of wealth per teacher for each state, see Appendix X. 



30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

must be lost, therefore, in bringing this issue in the most forcible manner to 
the people's attention/ 

Fortunately for the success of the proposed change the system of national 
support can be justified on other grounds than that of necessity in an 
emergency. Even if national aid were not in itself desirable, it would have 
been resorted to to save the situation. In the unanimous opinion of the 
committee, however, national aid is desirable and can be advocated, there- 
fore, on the double basis of practical necessity and soundness of principle. 
In fact, a study of the history of the systems of school support in America 
abundantly proves that, however great the change in policy which the 
method of national aid seems to involve, it is entirely in harmony with the 
evolution of our public-school system, a natural next step in its development, 
a step which, if wisdom had prevailed, would have come in the near future 
even without the war. The briefest summary of the development in 
question will make this plain. 

EVOLUTION OP THE SYSTEM OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 

Historically considered, public-school support began with the levying 
of a local tax in the district to pay the tuition of indigent children. Then 
permission was granted by law, whereby the voters of a district might tax 
themselves to support a public school for all of the children of the district. 
Next the privilege was extended to the residents of a town or township. 
Then the taxing unit was enlarged so as to embrace a county, as in many 
parts of the South and West. And finally, in most of the states, a tax is now 
levied on the ratables of the state to aid in school support.^ 

The theory is that education is for citizenship and that citizenship is a 
concern of the state; that all of the taxable wealth of the state, therefore, 
should be taxt to educate all of the children of the state. Until now this is 
as far as the evolution has extended in practice except in reference to voca- 
tional education. 

But primarily persons are citizens of the United States, but only second- 
arily of a state, and never of a community alone. When a foreigner takes 
his oath, it is to the United States that he swears allegiance. The nation 
first, the state second, demands military service and may require its citizens 
to lay down their lives to defend the nation, or to protect life and property 
in the state. The nation, as well as the state and the community, is inter- 
ested in the education of its citizens. The very existence of the Republic 
depends on the intelligence and virtue of its citizens. The appalling facts 
concerning illiteracy and the dangers, of which the war makes us acutely 

» "The local policy [of school support] is hopelessly obsolete because (i) it is unjust, (2) it is unreasonable, 
(3) it is impossible. Unjust because communities differ so widely in their ability to raise money; unreasonable 
because the burden of a state and nation is laid upon the town or city. Finally and most practically important, 
the adequate support of schools by local taxation has been wholly impossible." — Henry C. Morrison, State 
Superintendent of Connecticut, Journal of Education (April 25, 1918), p. 452. 

» It does not follow that each state has past thru all these stages of evolution. Iowa and several other 
states depend almost entirely upon local taxation for school support. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 31 

aware, from our foreign-born population show that the nation will neglect 
the education of its citizens at its peril. It is the manifest duty of the n tion 
to see to it that proper systems of education are maintained in all parts of 
the Republic and to help pay the bill. This recognition should have been 
granted and this obligation assumed long ago. Our system of school sup- 
port is breaking under the strain of the war. To save our education the 
next step in the evolution of this system must be taken. 

But this step, so far as the nation is concerned, is not as great as it may 
at first seem to be. From the early history of the Republic until the present 
time Congress, in various ways, has encouraged public education and has 
rendered financial aid. 

In 1785 Congress adopted an ordinance relating to the Northwest 
Territory providing for the reservation and sale of "lot numbered 16, of 
every township for the maintenance of public schools thruout the township." 

In 1787 this ordinance was confirmed. This reservation and grant mark 
the commencement of a policy since uniformly observed.^ 

In 1803 Congress further provided that all states in the Mississippi 
Valley should share in the educational privileges of the ordinance of 1787. 

In 1848 the grant of land was raised to two sections. 

In 1896 Utah received four sections.^ 

In 1836 Congress provided for the distribution of the surplus revenue in 
the United States Treasury. Thirteen of the states devoted part or all of 
their quota to educational purposes. 

In 1850 Congress granted to the several states the proceeds arising from 
the sale of certain swamp lands. Some of the states used this money to 
increase their school funds. ^ 

In 1862 the first Norrill Act was past by Congress allotting to the 
different states 10,929,215 acres of land. The proceeds arising from the 
sale of these lands form a permanent fund. The interest from this fund 
goes to help support state agricultural colleges. In 19 16 the income from 
this source was $916,151. 

In 1890 the second Norrill Act was past, and in 1907 the Nelson Act was 
passed creating what is known as the Norrill-Ne son fund — $2,500,000 
is paid annually from the United States Treasury in aid of colleges of 
agriculture and the mechanical arts."" 

In 19 1 7 the Smith-Hughes Act was past. This act provides a scheme 
of cooperation between the federal government and the states for the 

• It was unfortunate that Congress did not specify that these lands should never pass out of the hands 
of the school authorities but should be held in perpetuity for the use of the public schools. In some localities it 
is difficult to find out what ever became of the funds obtained from sale of these lands. In Chicago there was 
a section of school land in the very heart of the city. Most of this land has been sold, or leased for ninety-nine 
years without revaluation. If these lands were still owned by the schools and properly managed, the income 
would be sufficient to pay the salaries of all teachers of the city. 

' Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment, p. S7- Teachers College, Columbia University, 
IQ06. 

>Ibid., p. 58. * Report of the United States Cominissioner of Education for igiy, II, 375. 



32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

promotion of vocational education in the fields of agricultiire, trade, home 
economics, and industry. 

Under this act the federal government does not propose to undertake the organization 
and immediate direction of vocational training in the states, but it does agree to make 
from year to year substantial financial contributions to its support. This cooperation 
of the states with the federal government is based on four fundamental ideas : first, that 
vocational education being essential to the national welfare, it is the function of the 
national government to stimulate the states to undertake this new and needed form of 
service; second, that federal funds are necessary in order to equalize the burden of carry- 
ing on the work among the states; third, that since the federal govermnent is vitally 
interested in the success of vocational education, it should, so to speak, purchase a degree 
of participation in the work; and fourth, that onty by creating such a relationship between 
the central and the local governments can proper standards of educational efficiency be" 
set up.' 

In this act the federal government recognizes that a certain kind of 
education is essential to national welfare, and that federal funds are necessary 
to equalize the burden in carrying on the work. The next step is for the 
federal government to recognize that public education in general is essential 
to national welfare and that federal funds are necessary, not only to equalize 
the burden, but to make it possible to carry on the work of education and to 
maintain proper standards. When this principle is recognized it will be 
necessary only to set up the machinery for carrying out the idea, and the 
solution of the salary problem mil be under way. 

Ill 

What, in detail, this machinery is to be is a question which naturally 
remains, in large measure, to be workt out. But since this Association, if 
it indorses the method of national aid, must be prepared to make specific 
recommendations and to take an active part in the reorganization and 
extension of the system of school support, a tentative program is demanded. 
The committee therefore submits the following: 

1. That the management of schools remain in the hands of local authorities but 
that they be required to maintain standards which are fixt by law or by state and federal 
boards of education relative to: 

a) Buildings and equipment. 

b) Qualifications and standards of teachers. 

c) Length of school term. 

d) Proper enforcement of attendance laws. 

e) Hygienic conditions, including medical inspection. 

/) Proper provision for the education of special groups of children, such as defectives 
and delinquents. 

g) Number of pupils per teacher, minimum and maximum. 

h) Forms of education, elementary, secondarj^, industrial, physical, etc. 

/) Such other requirements as may be found necessary and desirable. 

2. That the local boards be required to raise by taxation at least one- fourth of the 
tfttal amount required for teachers' salaries, provided that no local tax rate for tliis purpose 

■ Quoted from Bulletin No. i, p. 7. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, 1917. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 33 



shall exceed a minimum of, say, five mills (50 cents on $roo) on a fair assessment of all 
property in the local unit of taxation. 

3. That the state provide at least one-fourth of the funds for teachers' salaries, with 
proper reporting and adequate inspection and supervision of accounts, to the end that 
all laws and regulations may be carried out. 

4. That state and national funds be apportioned on a basis which will enable local 
school boards to maintain legal standards and to pay adequate salaries to teachers.' 

5. That federal aid be given to each state to an amount, in each case, not exceeding 
one-half of the salaries of all teachers in elementar>' and secondary schools, and that 
additional aid be given for special purposes, such as the education of foreigners and adult 
illiterates, the extension of physical education, and especially the training of teachers. 
This aid should be extended in such a way as to stimulate the state and local communities 
to maintain high educational standards. 

A tentative draft of a bill extending federal aid to the different states has 
been prepared by the Commission of the National Education Association 
on the National Emergency in Education. This draft has been printed and 
circulated so that proper criticisms may be offered before its final formu- 
lation. 

The tentative draft provides for the appropriation of $100,000,000 a year 
by the federal government to the different states for educational purposes, 
divided as follows: $5,000,000 for the instruction of illiterates; $5,000,000 
for teaching immigrants the English language and instructing them in the 
duties of citizenship; $50,000,000 to aid the states in the improvement of 
public schools of less than college grade; $30,000,000 for physical education 
and recreation; $10,000,000 to furnish better instruction in teacher training. 

In addition to the appropriation the tentative draft provides for the 
establishment of a Department of Education and for the necessary machin- 
ery for carrying out the provisions of the proposed law. 

' The committee approves of this draft in principle but deems the amount 
of the appropriation too small. The estimate of United States Commis- 
sioner Claxton of $220,000,000 will come nearer meeting the requirements. 
The passage of this or a similar measure will mark a new epoch in the educa- 
tional history of the nation and will place public education on a basis which 
will enable it to be properly finanst and supervised. 

IV 

But many things must be done before teachers really receive adequate 
salaries. There is not only need for Congress to pass a law appropriating 
a large sum of money for teachers' salaries, but there must be appropriate 
school legislation in every state to supplement and make available any funds 
that may be furnisht by the federal government. In case Congress fails 

• This is one of the most difficult problems in the whole realm of school finance. A scientific solution 
of it is greatly needed. No single basis of apportionment is satisfactory. The best systems now m use are those 
which provide for the apportionment of part of the funds on the teacher basis, another part on the census basis 
or better yet on the aggregate-attendance basis, and a third part, not so large as e.ther of the other two (which 
usually should be in the form of a special appropriation), on basis of need of the poorer d.stncts. The last 
provision is a necessity in order that proper standards may be maintamed. 



34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

to act favorably, then it is to the state legislatures that teachers must look 
for additional funds. Back of these are the local city councils and boards 
of education. Much depends upon the action of these whether or not ade- 
quate salaries are paid to individual teachers. But back of all these are the 
people of the community, state, and nation, and public opinion will finally 
decide what is to be done and to what extent the campaign for adequate 
salaries will succeed. This is a time of war, a day when exacting demands 
are being made upon the strength, the attention, and the resources of 
government — national, state, and local. It is a time when people are called 
upon to sacrifice and to pay, pay, pay. Unless the people can be made to see, 
not only the justice of the demand, but the necessity for better salaries for 
teachers, unless they can be convinst that proper support of the schools 
is necessary for winning the war and for reconstruction after the war, any 
plans which may be formulated are doomed to failure in advance. "There 
are two armies for the defense of our civilization," says Dr. John Finley. 
"One is the army of Present Defense; the other is the army of Future 
Defense, and unless they both do their work well it matters little what the 
first Army of Defense does. It is upon both armies that civilization depends 
— if either fails all is lost." 

To secure wide publicity, to collect and disseminate necessary informa- 
tion, to prepare data for educational legislation, and to do many other 
things which must be done, teachers must organize. Organization is abso- 
lutely necessary to success. There will be needed: 

1. Effective national, state, and local organizations among teachers, 
with leaders of experience, knowledge, and social vision, and a large active 
membership that is willing to study and work. 

2. Committees to study the system of educational support^ and the 
problems of taxation in each state and to make available reliable data for 
use in formulating measures to be introduced in the various legislatures. 
In this connection public officials and the departments of education and 
economics in the universities and colleges can render valuable assistance 
thru their faculties and graduate students. 

3. Organization to secure the cooperation of other organizations in 
carrying thru educational measures — labor unions, chambers of commerce, 
granges, editorial associations, women's clubs, political parties. These are 
the agencies whereby public opinion is created and directed, and their 
support may be obtained by proper effort. 

4. Organization for pubHcity. Educational writers and speakers should 
be enlisted and a systematic campaign made to keep the subject before the 
pubUc. Show the people the needs of their schools and they can he relied on to 
see that the necessary funds are forthcoming. 

' Such research should include a study of methods of apportioning school appropriations)- order that a 
scheme may be devised whereby the poorer districts may support their schools without placing undue burdens 
on their people. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 35 

It will also be necessary to enlist the cooperation of the United States 
Bureau of Education and other agencies for the collection and dissemina- 
tion of accurate data relative to salaries, and to make investigations of the 
economic conditions of teachers in different parts of the country and pub- 
lish the results obtained. By this means up-to-date material may be 
available continually.^ 

Finally the committee wishes to call attention to the necessity of the 
appointment of an official representative of the National Education Associa- 
tion who shall devote his entire time to carrying on the work begun by the 
committee. This person should be a member of long experience in the 
teaching profession, capable of statistical inquiries, of wide knowledge of 
taxation for educational purposes, and fitted especially for making effective 
pubhc appeal both in writing and by speech. He should be guaranteed a 
salary corresponding with his duties and should be supplied with a budget 
which will enable him to secure efficient office help and necessary printing 
and traveling expenses. So far as his time is not occupied by other duties 
connected with the whole field of employment, tenure, salaries, and pensions, 
it might well be given as adviser and director of local campaigns in cities 
and states which might desire his services termporarily. It should be the 
duty of this officer to keep the National Education Association constantly at 
the head of movements for the improvement of material conditions of teach- 
ers in this country. Such an officer should not be primarily a student of sta- 
tistics. He should be an organizer and executive. Your committee is clear 
that not less than $10,000 for the next fiscal year should be appropriated 
at once for the purpose named above. The crisis is too acute to depend 
longer on a volunteer committee, the members of which are already loaded 
with other interests. There must be at least one representative educational 
leader drafted to devote his entire energies to this work. 

■ The United States Commissioner of Education has kindly offered to carry out the suggestion made above. 
He has already collected data relative to increases in salaries in 108 cities, which is publisht in Appendix VII 
of this report. 



36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



II. REPORT ON TENURE 

The chairman, in accordance with the decision of this committee to 
undertake a study of tenure of teachers, has secured the cooperation of the 
United States Bureau of Education. Commissioner Claxton writes as 
follows: "Mr. Hood, in this office, tells me that it will be comparatively 
easy to get facts of tenure laws in the several states. Most states have no 
laws on this subject. This office could, with a little help from your com- 
mittee, compile data on this subject in a hundred cities and a hundred 
counties which would probably be a sufficient number for your purpose." 
Continuity of employment during efficiency and good behavior is essential 
to any sound pension system and any sound educational system. 

The committee has devoted no time or special study to the subject of 
tenure. It is self-evident, however, that a pension system to be sound and 
satisfactory must require mandatory deductions from teachers' salaries, 
and this compulsory saving naturally tends toward permanent tenure. 

One of the biggest things in the way of tenure legislation of which the 
committee knows is the revised state education law for New York which was 
past in 1 91 7, and this law gives permanent tenure during satisfactory service, 
after a probationary period of three years, to all members of the teaching 
and supervising force except superintendents. In New York City the 
district superintendents of schools and the members of the Board of Examin- 
ers are included in the provision giving permanent tenure. 

Joseph Swain, Chairman 
Ernest C. Moore 
Margaret A. Haley 
David B. Jonhson 
Harlan Updegraff 
Grace C. Forsythe 
James Ferguson 
Francis G. Blair 
John W. Carr 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 37 



III. REPORT ON PENSIONS 

PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 

The National Education Association's Committee on Salaries, Tenure, 
and Pensions, appointed in 1911, has publisht, independently or in co- 
operation with the United States Bureau of Education, reports on Teachers' 
Salaries and Cost of Living (January, 1913), T/zg Tangible Rewards of Teach- 
ing (Bulletin 16, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1914), Salaries of Teachers and 
School Officers (Bulletin 31, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1915), and State 
Pension Systems for Public-School Teachers (Bulletin 14, U.S. Bureau of 
Education, 1916). 

The committee has also enlisted the cooperation of the Carnegie Founda- 
tion for the Advancement of Teaching, which, in addition to its granting of 
pensions to university and college professors, has conducted, for a dozen 
years, comprehensive studies of pensions for teachers, wherever such systems 
exist. The president of the Foundation, Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, has placed 
at the disposal of the committee all of this material, together with the 
services of the secretary of the Foundation, Dr. Clyde Furst, and his 
colleague. Dr. I. L. Kandel. 

These gentlemen have met in extensive conference with the committee 
and invited representatives from each state at the meetings of the 
National Education Association and its Department of Superintendence, 
at Detroit and New York in 1916, and Atlantic City and Pittsburgh in 1918. 
The reports which they prepared for these meetings, the meeting at Kansas 
City in 191 7 and the meeting of the National Council of Education at New 
York in 1 916, have been printed in the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Annual 
Reports of the Carnegie Foundation, which have been sent, without charge, 
to all teachers who requested them. Addresses on pensions, deHvered by 
Commissioner Claxton, Dr. Furst, and the chairman of the committee, 
before the Association as a whole, at New York in 19 16, are printed in the 
Proceedings of that meeting. 

All of the material thus provided by the Foundation is brought together, 
completed, and rearranged in Bulletin Number Twelve: Pensions for Public 
School Teachers, which the Foundation will send, without charge, to any 
teacher who requests it. The committee desires to record its appreciation 
of the sympathetic and complete cooperation of the Carnegie Foundation, 
which has thus rendered a service to every teacher in the country. 

teachers' pensions 

There are many reasons for teachers' pensions. Economically the work 
of an organization is not effective unless there is a satisfactory method of 



38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

retiring aged or infirm workers, with the consequent freedom from anxiety 
concerning such risks on the part of the workers. Only a satisfactory 
pension system can prevent either the dismissal of aged or infirm teachers 
without resources, or the sacrifice of the best interests of the schools in order 
to continue the employment of teachers who are no longer capable. Socially, 
men and women of character and inteUigence are wiUing to undertake 
difficult pubHc service that is poorly paid; but it is too much to expect them 
also to sacrifice the prospect of security and dignity in old age and disabihty. 
Educationally there is great need to attract, retain, and advance able people 
in teaching as a permanent career. A good pension system helps to do this. 

These facts were first apprehended in the United States a quarter of a 
century ago. Eight systems of pensions for teachers were founded before 
1900, twenty-three in the next decade, and thirty-six since the beginning of 
1 910. There are now sixty-seven different systems in thirty-foiu: states. 
The experience of this brief period has been fruitful, so that we are already 
able to correct errors and proceed with more assurance. The time should 
soon come when every state will have made such provision for its teachers. 

The organization of the teachers' pension systems now in existence is 
generally satisfactory, there being ordinarily a small special board upon 
which the teachers and the pubhc are about equally represented. More 
attention, however, is demanded by the need to have the actual administra- 
tion under expert direction with the supervision of the state's banking and 
insurance commissioners. 

The greatest difficulty that has been encountered has been the provision 
of adequate funds. The cost of a pension system for teachers may be borne 
by the teacher alone, by the public alone, or by the teacher and the public 
together. If the cost is borne by the teacher alone, he cannot afford, out of a 
small salary, to set aside enough money to purchase adequate protection, 
and the public fails to fulfil its obligation. If the cost is borne by the public 
alone, the money is really taken from the teachers' salaries without their 
agreement, and the majority, who withdraw or die before retirement, receive 
no return for their reduced pay. When the cost is borne by the teachers and 
the public together, the teacher receives appropriate compensation and 
contractual security, and the teacher and the public cooperate in an eco- 
nomic, social, and educational obligation. This principle of cooperation 
between the teacher and the public is recognized by most of the pension 
systems that are now in operation. 

The application of the principle of cooperation, however, is not so 
satisfactory. Only a few systems relate the amount of the contribution 
to the prospective cost of the pensions. Frequently public money is 
expected from sources like excise, inheritance, license, or transfer receipts; 
or deductions, fines, or forfeitures from teachers' salaries for absence or 
illness; or from the tuition of non-resident students, which cannot be 
accurately estimated in advance and so cannot furnish a reliable basis for 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 39 

pension payments. Equally unsatisfactory is the expectation of paying 
pensions, when they fall due, from current school or other funds, without any 
assurance that these funds will be adequate; or from special or general 
appropriations, without any certainty that such appropriations will be made 
by future and perhaps unsympathetic administrations. Indeed it is not 
uncommon to limit in advance the sums that may be taken from such 
sources, thus reducing the proportion of the pension that can be paid, or 
leaving the whole question of payment largely to accident. 

The only way in which absolute security can be obtained is for the con- 
tribution of the public as well as that of the teacher to be paid annually, 
credited to the individual teacher, and set aside to accumulate until the 
time of his retirement. This also is the only economical method. Any 
system which agrees to pay a pension from current funds after the teacher 
retires, plans to spend two or three times as much money as would be 
required if sums were set aside each year to accumulate during the teacher's 
period of service. Any other method is parallel to issuing bonds without 
provision for retiring them. 

Pension systems are still too generally organized without estimating 
their cost. The probable length of life of a teacher in service or after 
retirement may be estimated from the tables of mortality that have 
been developt by the life insurance companies, with adjustment for the 
fact that teachers live longer than other people. Some basis is becoming 
available for estimates of the likelihood of disability and the probable 
length of life after retirement because of disability. It is wise to avoid, so 
far as possible, basing pensions upon salaries at or near the age of retire- 
ment, since no one can predict what any teachers' salary will be thirty, or 
forty, or fifty years hence. 

There is, of course, a definite relation between the benefits and the cost 
of pensions. No one can secure expensive benefits in return for very small 
contributions. Only failure awaits the systems which promise retirement 
after twenty years of service or at the age of fifty; or in which teachers 
contribute only one-half of i per cent of their salaries, or the public contrib- 
utes only one-half as much as the teachers. 

Such errors may easily be corrected by a very simple pension system 
based upon conservative tables of mortality and upon a safe rate of interest, 
with the provision that the teacher receives the benefit of the accumulation 
of all of his contributions and those made for him. It is possible to esti- 
mate with reasonable definiteness what certain desired benefits will cost, 
or what benefits can be had for the money available. It is easy to estimate 
what any annual contribution, beginning at any age and accumulating at a 
given percentage, will amount to after any number of years. If then the 
money is deposited in a central fund, each contributor can be guaranteed a 
definite annuity for life, since the lives of all are averaged in the standard 
mortality tables. Thus an annual contribution of $100 a year, beginning at 



40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

the age of twenty-five, and accumulated at 4 per cent interest, will amount at 
sixty-five to $8,882 . 65, at seventy to $12,587 . 06. These sums will provide 
a man with an annuity for life, according to the McClintock Table of Mor- 
tality and 3I per cent interest, of $1086 a year beginning at sixty-five, or 
$1681 a year beginning at seventy. If, on the other hand, a man wishes 
to be sure of a life annuity of $1000 a year at sixty-five or seventy, he knows 
that this will cost $9098.60 or $8642.40 at those ages, and that it would 
require an annual contribution of $92 or of $68 a year from the age of 
twenty-five to accumulate these sums. The annuities from such a contri- 
bution for women, who live longer than men, would be about four-fifths of 
the sums that have been mentioned. 

These figures imply a return of the accumulations of the teachers who 
die before retirement and of those who withdraw from the system for any 
reason. If it is desired for the sake of family protection, there may be also 
a return of the balance of the accumulations of the teachers who retire but 
die before they have drawn all of their accumulations. This also can be 
calculated from standard mortality and interest tables. This protection 
costs about one-fourth more than a straight annuity. If further protection 
is desired against disabihty, this can be similarly provided, by the use of 
the best tables that we have, with the proviso that the rates for those who 
enter into the system in the future may be modified according to future 
experience. 

A pension system of the kind that has been mentioned is just and fair to 
all concerned, giving the teacher secure and adequate protection at a 
reasonable cost to himself and to the public. 

Such a system provides for retirement on the basis of age or of dis- 
ability after any suitable period of service. The age of retirement, which is 
now usually fixt, can, if desired, be left to the teacher and the administration. 
If the need is great retirement may be earlier, in spite of the fact that the 
smaller accumulations would then make the pension smaller. In general, 
retirement will in all probabiKty be later than at present because of the 
larger pension provided by the longer accumulation, and the educational 
desirability of keeping the able teacher in service as long as possible. 

Disability can be provided for by using whatever money has been 
accumulated at the time when retirement becomes unavoidable, perhaps 
with some supplement from the state until statistical experience makes it 
possible to provide specifically for disability. 

The newer system provides full protection for both the teacher and 
those who are dependent upon him, since the form of contribution sets up a 
contractual relation which provides definite returns in case of withdrawal 
or death. Return of contribution in case of resignation is now arranged for, 
but return in case of dismissal and in the case of death is seldom pro- 
vided for. Contractual arrangements for the return of contributions will 
facilitate the desirable transfer of the teacher from one system to another. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 41 

Indeed, with the spread of sound plans, pension systems thruout the country 
will become more and more uniform, so that the experience of each will 
help all. Continuity of employment during efficiency and good behavior 
is essential to any sound pension system. 

Joseph Swain, Chairman 
Ernest C. Moore 
David B. Johnson 
Harlan Updegraff 
Grace C. Forsythe 
James Ferguson 
Francis G. Blair 
John W. Carr 



JOINT RESOLUTION OF THE COMMITTEE ON 
SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS, AND 
THE COMMISSION ON THE NATIONAL 
EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION 



Our schools are in danger. Their present support cannot keep up former 
standards, much less meet war demands. 

The money now available is not sufficient to instruct five million illiterates, 
to Americanize thirteen million foreigners, to provide physical and health 
education for all children, to secure adequate school terms and attend- 
ance, to pay teachers a Hving wage, and to provide for their professional . 
preparation, development, security, and protection in disability and old 
age. 

The teachers of the country were not receiving a living wage before 
the war; their present situation is critical. In 191 5 they received 
an average annual salary of $543. The increase since then has been 
small. 

Immediate national aid is urgently needed. Increast local taxation 
and state support will not suffice; such support will of necessity be avail- 
able in very unequal degree even if it could be had quickly. 

Education in agriculture and the mechanic and household arts has long 
been recognized as essential to national welfare, and national funds are 
provided to equalize its burdens and maintain its standards. 

General public education is even more essential to national welfare 
to promote the allegiance, inteUigence, moraUty, and devotion of all 
citizens. 

National support of general public education, begun in 1785, confirmed 
in the ordinance of 1787, and extended thereafter, should now be increast to 
the extent of a Hberal cooperation with the state, and thru the state with 
the local community. 

A national department of education should be estabHsht to carry out this 
program of cooperation. 

The National Education Association, in order to collect full information 
concerning the present state of public education, to enlighten pubHc opinion, 
and to aid in securing appropriate local, state, and national school support, 
hereby authorizes the Executive Committee to secure the full time, for a 
term of not less than three years, of an educator of recognized abiUty and 

43 



44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

experience, and to provide for the organization, correspondence, travel, 
publication, and other expenses of his office, a total sum, including salaries, 
of at least ten thousand dollars a year. 

Joseph Swain, Chairman, 
Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions 
George D. Strayer, Chairman, 
Commission on the National Emergency in Education 

Note. — This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the National Education Asso- 
ciation at Pittsburgh, July 5, 1918. 



APPENDIXES 



46 



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48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX II 

MEASURES ADOPTED TO MEET THE PRESENT 
EMERGENCY 

The following extracts are the replies of state superintendents to 
question 5 of the questionnaires sent out by the Committee on Teachers' 
Salaries. It is the latest information on present conditions. 

Alabama. — Local tax levy. 

Delaware. — Last general assembly increast the school funds by taxing incomes. 

Florida. — Constitutional amendment raising tax from 7 to 10 mills will carry with little 

opposition in the November election. Many counties have voted to raise teachers' 

salaries an average of 10 per cent. 
Iowa. — Each district has its own budget to make up. We levy $40 per pupil and $60 in 

districts transporting pupils. 
Kentucky. — By legislature fixing a 30-cent rate for county outside of city. By consolida- 
tion. By economizing so far as possible in expense of maintenance. 
Maine. — The state of Maine offers this year an average increase in the salaries of super- 
intendents thus far elected of about four hundred dollars, and there is evidently an 

increase in teachers' wages of at least 25 per cent. 
Maryland. — The recent session of the legislature increast the state appropriation $250,000 

and increast the minimum salaries for teachers from 25 to 50 per cent. 
Massachusetts. — Legislation. In 1918 minimum of union superintendents raised from 

$1500 to $1800; also $550 minimum for all teachers except in towns of less than 

$1,000,000 valuation. 
Minnesota. — Increase of local taxation for school purposes. 
Mississippi. — We are making a campaign for more money by local taxation. 
Missouri. — An attempt has been made by a state tax commission appointed by the 

governor, authorized by the state legislature, to raise the valuation of property. 

The work of this commission was set aside by the state Board of Equalization. 
Montana. — Additional special levy. 
North Carolina. — Special local taxation for immediate relief. A movement to amend the 

state constitution requiring a greater minimum length of term with proper legal 

statuary enforcement. 
North Dakota. — Have given as much publicity as possible to the necessity for a material 

increase in salaries. No legislature has met. Hence no bills for it. 
Oregon. — Principally larger district tax levy. 
Pennsylvania. — Our new minimum-salary law advances the salary from $40 and $50 

respectively to $45, $55, and $65, and the amount needed to make this increase will 

be taken out of the general school appropriation, which was raised to $18,000,000 at 

the last session of the legislature. 
Rhode Island. — School committees are asking town meetings and city councils for lower 

appropriations. 
South Dakota. — By inducing school boards to levy sufficient tax. 
Texas. — By raising valuations of property. 
Utah. — Attempt being made to tax mines. 

Vermont. — Our local boards are raising salaries in many cases 25 per cent. 
Virginia. — Increase standard appropriations and have levy to limit. 
Washington. — Conferences with all county officials and circular letters to all school 

directors, superintendents, and principals. 
Wisconsin. — Local authorities are increasing tax levy for that purpose. 
Wyoming. — Maintain a teachers' employment bureau in the department of education, 

which maintains standards. Convince district boards that other professions will 

take desirable teachers at higher wages. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



49 



APPENDIX III 

ESTIMATED SALARIES AND EXPENDITURES NECESSARY TO 
MEET THE ADVANCE IN COST OF LIVING IN 1918 

The average salaries and expenditures for teachers' salaries are taken from Report of 
the United States Commissioner of Education for 1917, II, 50 and 54. 

The estimated salaries to meet the advance in the cost of living are based on the table 
found on page 20 of the Report of the Railroad Wage Commission for 1918, Washington, D.C. 



Stole 



Average Salaries 

of Teachers, 

1914-15 



Estimated 

Salaries to Meet 

the Advance in 

Cost of Living, 

1918 



Percent- 
age of 
Increase 



Total Expendi 
tures for Teachers' 
Salaries, 1914-15 



Estimated Ex- 
penditures to Meet 
the Advance in 
Cost of Living, 
1918 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota (1914) 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District of Columbia. . 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida (1914) 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi {1913) . • . . 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Utoh 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregorf^. 

California 

United States. . . . 



% 41113 

47234 
418.77 
810.72 
71437 
619.36 
075 13 
861.86 
465.72 
53752 
592.69 
713-84 
557-71 
542-02 
469 . 28 
506.09 
533 59 
574-76 
457.27 
454-67 
635-34 
358-31* 
561.83 
1019.08 
332-19 
320.29 
251-31 
282.68 
30s -97 
32700 
342.96 
335.20 
345.00 
233-64 
437-19 
428.20 
334.94 
438 . 69 
640 . 07 
494.06 
560.58 
507-54 
738-96 
691 .66 
725 -08 
665.16 
808.42 
506.35 
951-27 



% 651.13 
712.34 
658.77 

1143-I1 

1007.26 
878.80 

1365.18 

1215,22 
705.72 
777-52 
847 55 

1006,51 
797-53 
782.02 
709.28 
746.09 
773-59 
821 .91 
697.27 
694 - 67 
895-83 
598,31 
803 , 42 

1426,71 
572.19 
560,29 
491-31 
522.68 
545-97 
567-00 
582.96 
575-20 
585-00 
473-64 
677-19 
668.20 
574.94 
678.69 
902 . 50 
734-06 
801.63 
747-54 

1041.93 
975-24 

1022.36 
927.88 

H39-87 
746-35 

1340-05 



S8 
SI 
57 
41 
4t 
41 
40 
41 
52 
44 
43 
41 
43 
44 
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47 
43 
43 
52 
53 
41 
67 
43 
40 
72 
75 
96 
85 
78 
73 
70 
72 
70 
103 
55 
S6 
72 
55 
41 
49 
43 
47 
41 
41 
41 
41 
41 
47 
40 



2,240,982 

1,200,110 

1,246,816 

14,789,286 

1,807,332 

4,363,034 

46,690,195 

12,301,576 

25,687,143 

18,789,778 

11,168,718 

23,179,650 

11,931,113 

8,850,051 

10,375,297 

11,174,716 

10,767,962 

3,695,051 

2,987,437 

6,217,797 

7.933,519 

263,608 

3,495,724 

1,760,667 

4,156,959 

3,545,573 

3,487,304 

2,281,249 

4,385,259 

1,644,481 

4,270,554 

4,185,097 

3,579,199 

2,173,717 

3,451,226 

11,373,280 

3,567,461 

6,179,928 

2,775,290 

856,059 

4,402,243 

974,608 

943,525 

2,572,114 

484,855 

2,094,87s 

7,854,843 

3,786,684 

17,062,504 



3,540,752 

1,812,166 

1,957,501 

20,852,893 

2,548,338 

6,183,728 

65,366,273 

17,345,222 

39,044,457 

27,057,280 

15,971,267 

32,683,306 

17,061,492 

12,744,073 

15,666,698 

16,^26,833 

15,398,186 

5,283,923 

4,540,904 

9,513,229 

11,186,262 

440,225 

4,998,885 

2,464,934 

7,149,969 

6,204,753 

6,835,116 

4,220,311 

7,805,761 

2,844,952 

7,259,942 

7,198,367 

6,084,638 

4,412,646 

5,349,400 

17,742,317 

6,136,033 

9,578,888 

3,913,159 

1,275,528 

6,295,207 

1,432,674 

1,330,370 

3,626,681 

683,646 

2,953,774 

11,075,329 

5,566,419 

24,035,949 



$ 54331 



$ 788.43 



$345,006,445 



511,100,656 



* Exclusive of Wilmington. 



50 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX IV 

PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY BY STATES 

States in which the number of illiterates increast from 1900 to 1910. 
Sixteen states increast in the number of illiterates, all in North and West. 

TABLE A 

Based oil Census of 1910, Abstract, p. 245 



State 


No. of Illiterates, 
1900 


No. of Illiterates, 
1910 


Increase 


Percentage of 
Increase 




134,043 
29,004 
42,973 

318,100 
86,658 

299,376 

157,958 
12,719 
11,67s 
2,878 
17,779 
46,971 
27,307 
6,141 
12,740 
58,959 


141,541 

33,854 

53,66s 

406,020 

113,502 

354,290 

168,294 

13,070 

14,457 

3,874 

23,780 

48,697 

32,953 

6,821 

18,416 

74,902 


7,498 

4,850 

10,692 

87,920 

26,844 

54,914 

10,336 

351 

2782 

996 

6,001 

1,726 

5,646 

680 

5,676 

15,943 


5.6 




16.7 








27.6 






Pennsylvania 

Illinois 


18.3 
6.5 




2.8 




23.8 








33-7 




3.7 




20.7 


Utah 


II .1 


Washington 


44.7 




27.0 







TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



51 









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52 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX V 
DENSITY OF ILLITERATE POPULATION 

Great manufacturing states of the North compared with the states of the Black Belt of 
the South. 

See Abstract of Thirteenth Census (1910), p. 28; also p. 245. 

TABLE A 



State 


Land Area 


Number of 
Illiterates 


Number per 
Square Mile 




GREAT MANUFACTURING STATES OF THE NORTH 




8,039 
1,067 
4,820 

45,409 
7,514 

44,832 


141,541 
33,854 
53,665 
406,020 
113,502 
354,290 


17.6 




31-7 




11. 1 




8.9 




iS-i 


Pennsylvania 


7-9 


Total 


111,681 


1,102,872 


9.8 










STATES OF THE BLACK BELT OF THE SOUTH 




30,495 
58,725 
51,279 
46,362 
45,409 


276,980 
389,775 
352,710 
290,235 
352,174 


9.1 




6.6 




6.9 




6.3 




7.8 






Total 


232,270 


1,661,879 


7.1 







TABLE B 



Rhode Island 31.7 

Massachusetts 17.6 

New Jersey 15.1 

Connecticut 11.1 
South Carolina 9.1 

New York 8.9 

Pennsylvania 7.9 

Louisiana 7.8 

Alabama 6.9 

Georgia 6.6 

Mississippi 6.3 



\ 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING S3 



APPENDIX VI 

CITIES REPORTING NO INCREASE IN TEACHERS' SALARIES 

FOR 1918 

Of 320 cities of over io,ooo population, 23 report no increase in salaries. 
List furnished by the National Education Association Commission on the Emergency in 

Education, June, 1918. 
City No. of Teachers 

1. Bethlehem, Pa , 68 

2. Columbia, S.C 109 

3. Eureka, Cal 59 

4. Greensboro, N.C 72 

5. Jacksonville, Fla 196 

6. Jeffersonville, Ind 41 

7. Lexington, Ky 149 

8. Little Rock, Ark 139 

9. Los Angeles, Cal. (no change since 1914-15) 2589 

10. Marshall, Tex 71 

11. Massillon, Ohio 77 

12. Millville, N.J 78 

13. Mount Carmel, Pa 58 

14. Natchez, Miss 36 

15. Niagara Falls, N.Y 196 

16. Pawtucket, R.I 161 

1 7. Philadelphia, Pa 5593 

18. Rome, Ga 39 

19. Salem, Mass 154 

20. Vicksburg, Miss 59 ■ 

2 1 . Washington, Pa 104 

22. Watertown, Mass 77 

23. York, Pa 215 

Total 10,340 



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58 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX VIII 

SUMMARY OF REPORT ON SALARIES PAID TO TEACHERS IN 

320 CITIES OF OVER 10,000 POPULATION IN THE 

UNITED STATES 

This report was made as a result of an investigation conducted by the National 
Education Association Commission on the National Emergency, Dr. George D. Strayer, 
chairman. 



Kind of School 



Salary Levels 



Number of Teachers 
Employed at Each 
Level 



Median Salary for 

Each Kind of 

School 



*Elementary Schools 



Total elementary. 



*Intermediate schools (Junior high schools) 



Total intermediate schools . 



*High schools. 



Total high schools. 
Grand total 



Soo- 
700- 
900- 
1100- 
1300- 
1500- 
1700- 
1900- 
2100- 
2300- 
Over 



499 
699 
899 
1099 
1299 
1499 
1699 
1899 
2099 
2299 
2499 
2500 



$ 300-$ 499 

SCO- 699 

700- 899 

900- 1099 

I 100- 1299 

1300- 1499 

1500- 1699 

1700- 1899 

1900- 2099 

2100- 2299 

2300- 2500 

Over 2500 



$ 300-$ 495 

SCO- 699 

700- 899 

900- 1099 

HOC- 1299 

1300- 1499 

1500- 1699 

1700- 1899 

1900- 2099 

2100- 2299 

2300- 2499 

Over 2500 



2785! 

15219 

19807 

11200 

8023 

1841 

96 

47 



S9020 

113" 

562 

1218 

io6s 

597 

161 

38 



3779 

33 

30s 

1852 

2950 

247f 

2035 

2294 

mo 

338 

288 

152 

149 



13976 



7677s 



$ 716-19 



$ 799-42 



51149.50 



*Salaries of principals or general supervisory officers are not recorded. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 59 



APPENDIX IX 

INCREASE IN SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN CERTAIN CITIES; 

ALSO INCREASE IN WAGES OF EMPLOYES IN 

CERTAIN INDUSTRIES 

It is interesting to note that in establishing salary schedules the "equal 
pay" principle has been recognized by the Hon. William G. McAdoo, 
director general of railroads of the United States, by the War Depart- 
ment and its ammunition factories, and by the National War Labor Board. 

INCREASES IN TEACHERS' SALARIES 

The committee has knowledge up to date of increases in salaries as 
follows: In New York City on January i, 191 2, the minimum salary was 
raised from S600 to $720; on January i, 19 18, the minimum was raise 
from $720 to $800; and it was proposed that from July i, 1918, the minimum 
should be raised from $800 to $1000. This affects only 7000 of the 21,000 
teachers and is unsatisfactory. The Board of Education, however, beUeves 
that this is the best use of the money available for 1918, because of the fact 
that the national government is offering $1000 to young women equipt as 
teachers are. Said Board has a committee working on a general upward 
revision of all salaries, which will probably call for a total increase of 
$4,000,000. The teachers, however, are demanding schedules more com- 
mensurate with the present cost of hving, which schedules call for a total 
increase of approximately $12,000,000. Naturally the question arises, 
" Wliere is the money to come from ? " The teachers are planning to appeal 
to the state legislature to amend the state education law by changing the 
tax rate for teachers' salaries in cities over 100,000 from 4.9 mills to 6 mills. 

The County Council of London has voted a 50 per cent increase to 
teachers' salaries. 

Fall River, Mass., has voted to increase the salary of every member of 
the teaching corps $100 per year, dating from May 20, 1918. 

Rockford, 111., has granted an annual increase of $100 from September i, 
1918, and is considering a proposal of a $50 bonus in addition. 

Hoboken, N.J., has added $300 to the annual salary of its teachers. 

Paterson, N.J., had added -$200 to the annual salary of its teachers. 

UNITED STATES STEEL GIVES LABOR A 15 PER CENT INCREASE 

Two hundred thousand employes of the United States Steel Corpora- 
tion were made happy by the announcement of a 15 per cent increase in 
wages effective April 15. The advance is in recognition of the increast 
cost of Uving. 



6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

It is estimated that the increase in wages just granted will cost the com- 
pany yearly about $45,000,000. The annual report of the company shows 
a 19 1 7 surplus of more than $52,000,000 and a total undivided surplus of 
$431,660,803. 

Between the end of 1915 and the last quarter of 1917 the corporation 
raised the pay of its employes 60 per cent. 

The corporation at the close of the year had 268,058 employes, compared 
with 252,668 at the close of 1916. During the year 11,486 employes entered 
the United States service. 

STANDARD OIL RAISES WAGES THREE MILLIONS 

An increase in wages averaging 10 per cent was made, apphcable to all 
wage-earners except first-class bricklayers and watchmen, whose rates will 
be increast 5 per c-ent^^nd lead burners, whose rates previously had been 
raised. 

All employes, without any contribution on their part, will be given 
individual life insurance policies with benefits ranging from a sum equal to 
three months' wages to $2000. 

The old-age pension system now in vogue, where employes sixty-five 
years of age are provided for, has been amended so that an employe may 
retire at the end of twenty years of service on a pension. 

President Teagle said that about 30,000 employes were affected by the 
wage increase, which totaled somewhat more than $3,000,000 a year. 
When he announced the wage increase he stated that since August i, 191 5, 
the Standard Oil Company has granted five general wage increases for all 
classes of labor, so that the average increase since that time has amounted 
to 62 .8 per cent, while the rate for common labor had been increast 80 .57 
per cent in this period. 

In addition to these increases a change from a nine- to an eight-hour 
day was made effective September 15, 19 15. This was without any change 
in the scale of wages and was therefore equivalent to an increase in the 
wage scale of 19 37 per cent, 

RAILROAD-WAGE INCREASES 

General pay increases for nearly 2,000,000 railroad employes were 
announced by Director- General McAdoo. 

Issuance of General Order No. 27 granted an increase of wages 
on the eight-hour-day basis to all employes. The increases will reach 
$300,000,000 a year. 

The increases carry out almost entirely the recommendations of the 
Railroad Wage Commission. They become effective next Saturday and 
are retroactive to last January i. 

In the state legislature last April a bill was introduced pro/iding a 
20 per cent increase for all state employes receiving less than one thousand 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 6 1 



($1000) dollars, and a 15 per cent increase for those receiving more than one 
thousand ($1000) dollars but less than two thousand ($2000) dollars. This 
would have cost $2,900,000, and because it was understood that this amount 
would be prohibitive the bill was past in an amended form, which provided 
for a 10 per cent or such lower increase of all salaries under fifteen hundred 
($1500) dollars, so that the minimum of fifteen hundred ($1500) dollars 
might be made. This involved the expenditure of one million ($1,000,000) 
dollars. 

PROPOSALS FOR INCREASE 

The Board of Alderman of New York City on June 11, 1918, by a 
unanimous vote adopted a resolution providing for a 10 per cent increase 
to employes now receiving from $1000 to $2000 a year, and 20 per cent to 
those receiving $1000 or less. 

The teachers of the state of New York thru the Teachers' Council and 
various teachers' organizations are asking for a minimum salary of one 
thousand ($1000) dollars with a maximum for teachers in the first six 
years of $2160, and for teachers in the seventh and eighth years of $2400. 
This would involve an additional expenditure of $12,000,750. 

The Interborough Association of Women Teachers and some other 
associations are asking for a "war bonus" of $200 for every member of the 
teaching and supervising force, pending a general revision of teachers' 
salaries, to make them more nearly commensurate with the increast cost of 
living. During the last session of the New York state legislature two bills 
were introduced which did not become law, but which are indicative of the 
belief that salaries should be increast in proportion to their nearness to a 
"living wage." One of these provided that all city employes — New York 
City — whose salary is less and not more than twelve hundred ($1200) 
dollars shall be increast 20 per cent; those whose salary is twelve hundred 
($1200) and not more than eighteen hundred ($1800) dollars shall be 
increast 15 per cent; those whose yearly salary is more than eighteen 
hundred ($1800) and not more than twenty-four hundred ($2400) dollars, 
shall be increast 10 per cent; those whose salary is more than twenty-four 
($2400) hundred dollars shall be increast 5 per cent. 

The other bill provided that all state employes whose annual salary is 
less and not more than $1080 shall be increast 20 per cent, those whose 
salary is less and not more than $1560 shall be increast 15 per cent, those 
whose salary is not more than $1800 shall be increast 10 per cent, and those 
whose salary is less and not more than $2040 shall be increast 50 per cent. 



62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX X 

CHART SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF WEALTH FOR EACH 
TEACHER EMPLOYED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1916 

Average amount for each teacher for the United States is $280,754.08. 

The wealth is based on the report of the Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 
Census, for 191 2. 

The number of teachers for 1916 is based on the Report of the United States Com- 
missioner of Education^ II, 76. 

The calculations were made for the Commission on Emergency in Education by John 
A. H. Keitt, 1 918. The chart was made by John- W. Carr. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 



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64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX XI 

RELATION OF SALARIES TO EXPENSES 0^ 1504 ELEMENTARY 

TEACHERS IN TOWN AND CITY SCHOOLS OF 

MISSOURI (DECEMBER, 1917)^ 

The teachers of St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Joseph are not included. 

The facts brought out are based not upon theory but upon actual 
salary received and actual expenses incurred during the first three months 
of the school year 191 7-18. A study of the items included under expenses 
wiU show that nothing has been included which is not actually essential to a 
teacher's welfare. 

In considering the report that follows the following striking facts should 
be noted: 93 per cent stated that expenses would be greater in proportion 
during the remainder of the school term than during the first three months. 

TOTAL SALARIES 

Of all elementary teachers, 12.2 per cent receive less than $360 per year; 
31 .5 per cent receive less than $450 per year; 75 .5 per cent receive less 
than $500 per year. 

The foregoing are annual salaries. Usually paid for an eight- or nine- 
month school term, they must be divided by twelve to get the average 
monthly salary. 

RELATION OF SALARIES TO EXPENSES 

Of the teachers receiving $360 or less, 67 per cent spend more than they 
earn in the schoolroom; 58 per cent of those receiving $405 spend more than 
they earn in the schoolroom; 50 per cent of those receiving $550 or less spend 
more than they earn in the schoolroom. 

The foregoing allows nothing for savings and little for professional 
growth. It covers bare Hving expenses. 

Of all elementary teachers, 52.4 per cent receive less than $550 per 
year. These must supplement their earnings in the schoolroom. 

The foregoing is true notwithstanding the fact that a large percentage 
of teachers Uve at home and by their own statements contribute nothing 
whatever to living expenses. In the teacher-training schools 62 per cent of 
all grade teachers are local and in the main live at home. The answers 
from many of these local teachers show that the salary from teaching 
would by no means support them were it not for the fact that room and 
board cost them nothing, being paid by their parents. 

■Extract adapted from a pamphlet issued by the state superintendent, Uel W. Lampkin. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 65 



APPENDIX XII 
THE WAR AND TEACHERS' S.\L ARIES 

(Prepared for the Commission by Dr. I. L. Kandel) 
England and Wales 

The problem of maintaining an adequate supply of elementary-school 
teachers was already becoming serious in England and Wales before the 
war; the outbreak of the war and its continued duration have only served 
to intensify the crisis. A large proportion of the men have joined the Army, 
and many women have been attracted to occupations which appear at once 
to be more obviously connected with the war activities and to offer higher 
remuneration than teaching. At the same time the war has imposed addi- 
tional burdens, willingly assumed but none the less demanding sacrifices, 
on the teachers; these have taken the form of larger classes, extra work in 
the schools, voluntary war work of different kinds, and so on. Not the 
least of the hardships has been the depreciation of salaries due to the rising 
cost of living, which by 191 7 had increast about 80 per cent above that of 
1 9 14. Education authorities were confronted with several problems — 
inability to retain teachers in the face of more attractive opportunities 
elsewhere, inability to secure an adequate supply of candidates ready to 
undertake several years of training at a time when remunerative occupa- 
tions were open to them without training, and inability to find additional 
resources when the public purse was otherwise being drained to meet other 
demands. 

The first response was to grant bonuses on salaries which never went 
beyond the annual addition of 10 per cent and rarely affected salaries above 
$1000 or $1 250 a year. Such increases were of course quite incommensurate 
with the needs of the time, especially when skilled workmen could command 
as much as $75 a week, and boys still under eighteen about $15 a week for 
unskilled services. In only one important respect was the stringency 
relieved by a government prohibition against the increase of rents. The 
bonus system prevailed until about the middle of 191 7, when the govern- 
ment came to the rescue with an addition to the educational budget of 
about $18,000,000, which was specially earmarkt for salaries. At the same 
time the Board of Education issued a minute recommending that the 
minimum salary for women teachers in elementary schools should be $450 
and for men teachers $500. The effect of the additional government grant 
was to stimulate the estabhshment of new scales of salary. 

In the meantime the government had appointed in June, 191 7, a 
departmental committee to inquire into the principles which should deter- 
mine the construction of scales of salary for teachers in elementary schools, 



66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

and another committee to make a similar inquiry into the salaries of 
secondary-school teachers. The first committee issued its report in 
February, 1918. The report'^ is based on three main principles: 

1. That the "authorities in constructing a scale should aim at obtaining 
a constant supply of suitable recruits, at retaining them while other careers 
are still open to them, and at securing service of the desired quality from 
those who make teaching their life work." 

2. That the scale "shall provide them with a reasonable assurance of a 
remuneration that will enable them to live appropriately without embar- 
rassment, and that they may have a fair chance of advancement to posts of 
greater importance and emolument." 

3. That the authorities "in framing their scales are taking part in the 
work of establishing the teaching service of the country on a basis conducive 
to the efi&ciency of the system of national education; they should proceed 
upon a common basis of principles." 

The committee, while accepting the administrative advantages of a 
salary scale, recognized that special consideration must be given to reward- 
ing teachers of exceptional ability, to dealing with teachers who drift into 
a rut, to withholding increments from those teachers who are reported to be 
inefficient. It further considered the question of equal pay for men and 
women, for which a strong agitation has been launcht by women teachers 
thruout the country. Finally some attention was given to removing 
some of the inequalities in salaries paid to teachers in rural and urban 
areas. 

The chief principle adopted for the construction of salary scales was that 
a scale with smaller increments for the early years of service, followed by 
larger increments leading up to a salary adequate for increasing family 
responsibihties, and then with further prospects until retirement, is superior 
to a sharp, steep scale leading early up to a maximum, or a long and gradual 
scale which would not yield an adequate salary when responsibihties were 
greatest. For example, in the case of men certificated teachers, annual in- 
crements are suggested for not less than twelve years, followed by increments 
at intervals of not more than three years for a further period of about ten 
years; and for women certificated teachers, annual increments for not less 
than eight years, followed by increments at longer intervals as in the case of 
ftien. Uncertificated teachers should have a short scale covering a period 
of four to six years and not rising above the minimum for women cer- 
tificated teachers, with discretionary increments in cases of individual 
merit. Owing to the opposition of the teaching body the committee was 
unable to recommend that increments should depend solely upon merit, 
and it suggests that increments be automatic except in the case of definite 

' Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles Which Shoula Determine 
the Construction of Scales of Salary for Teachers in Elementary Schools. Vol. I, Report, Cd. 8939; Vol. II, 
Summaries of Evidence and Memoranda, Cd. 8999. 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 67 

default or wilful neglect, with additional rewards for exceptional merit. 
The committee was unable to accept the principle of equal pay for men and 
women, partly because a scale of salaries adequate for women is under 
present circumstances inadequate for men, and partly because it is essential 
to attract and retain suitable men in the profession. Accordingly it advo- 
cated the principle that the minimum salaries for both men and women 
should be approximately the same, but that the maximum for women should 
not be less than three-fourths of the maximum for men. With reference 
to rural and urban teachers the committee was of the opinion that service in 
the rural districts should be made financially attractive, and that accordingly 
salaries should be only a little lower than in urban areas. While the com- 
mittee did not attempt to estabhsh a national scale, it offered for considera- 
tion a number of illustrative scales and emphasized the importance of 
avoiding such diversity that the larger school systems would draw teachers 
away from the smaller. 

The following illustrations of scale-making for certificated teachers were 
offered : 



1. Minimum S500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $800 in the thirteenth year 
of service, and then by triennial increments of $50 to $950 in the twenty-second year of 
service. 

2. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $700 in the ninth year of 
service, then by annual increments of $50 to $900 in the thirteenth year of service, and then 
by triennial increments of S50 to S1050 in the twenty-second year of service. 

3. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $575 in the fourth year of 
service, then by aimual increments of $50 to $1050 in the fourteenth year of service, and 
then by triennial increments of $50 to $1 200 in the twenty-third year of service. 

4. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $600 in the fifth year of 
service, then by annual increments of $50 to $1150 in the sixteenth year of service, and 
then by triennial increments. 

5. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $50 to $1200 in the sixteenth year 
of service, and then by triennial increments of $100 to $1500 in the twenty-fifth year of 
service. 



1. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $650 in the ninth year of 
service, and then by triennial increments of $50 to $750 in the thirteenth year of service. 

2. Minimum $450 rising as in (i) to $650 in the ninth year of service, then by one 
increment to $700 in the tenth year of service, and then by triennial increments to $850 in 
the nineteenth year of service. 

3. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $600 in the seventh year of 
service, then by annual increments of $50 to $750 in the tenth year of service, and then by 
triennial increments of $50 to $900 in the nineteenth year of service. 

4. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $550 in the fifth j^ear of 
service, then by annual increments of $50 to $850 in the eleventh year of service, and then 
by triennial increments of $50 to $1000 in the twentieth year of service. 

5. Minimum $450 rising as in (4) to $550, then by annual increments of $50 to $900 
in the twelfth year of service, and then by triennial increments of $100 to $1200 in the 
twenty-first year of service. 



68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

SCOTLAND 

The effect of the war on the salaries of teachers in Scotland was 
similar to that in England and Wales, with similar attempts to meet the 
situation by the grant of bonuses. In July, 19 17, the government 
appointed a Departmental Committee on the Remuneration of Teachers 
in Scotland, which considered and reported in November, 191 7, on 
salaries in elementary and secondary schools and in training colleges. 
The general considerations determining the report of the committee was as 
follows: 

In considering the larger and more important part of our reference, viz., the suitable 
scales of salary for different classes of teachers, we desired to approach the question not 
solely, nor even mainly, as one involving the interests of a single profession, but as one 
vitally affecting the welfare of the whole community. That welfare must depend, in 
increasing measure, upon the efi&ciency of national education; and the fundamental 
requirement for securing this is that there should be an adequate supply of teachers of 
high capacity, proved aptitude, and thoro training. This cannot be attained unless the 
remuneration is such as to make the teaching profession one which may compete with 
other professions in securing recruits of sufficient capacity arid in repaying these recruits 
for the time and labour spent in their special training. To attract such recruits it is 
necessary, not only that a fair salary should be offered to begin with, but — and it is an 
even more vital condition— that sufficiently attractive prospects should be opened to 
those who have served for a certain number of years. 

Following this line of inquiry we come to the following general conclu- 
sions: 

1. That not only as a temporary war measure, but as a permanent 
necessity in order to maintain an efficient teaching profession in the interests 
of the country, the general remuneration of teachers must be raised, and 
an equalization of the scale of salaries for similar classes of schools over the 
country is desirable. 

2. That this cannot be attained by any continuation or extension of the 
bonus system. 

3. That while an adequate initial salary must be provided, it is even of 
greater importance that improved prospects should be opened to those who 
attain a certain length of service and have proved their competency and 
their aptitude for the profession. 

4. That the scale should take account of: 

a) The length and character of the preliminary training. 

b) Length of service. 

c) The responsibihty of the post held and its demands on the capacity 
and energy of a teacher. 

The scales recommended by the committee are in every case higher than 
those prevaihng at present and determined by local and accidental circum- 
stances. While aware of the large increase of expenditure involved, the 
committee declares it to be its 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 69 



firm and considered conviction, however, that the scheme .... cannot be attained 
except, first, by an extension of school areas, and, secondly, by a very large proportion of 

the additional amount required being provided by the central authority Whatever 

the cost, if it is proved to be necessary for high educational efficiency, we cannot afford the 
ultimate extravagance which is involved in undue parsimony in such a case. It should 
not be overlookt that the aim of the proposed standard of salaries .... is not so much 
to improve the position and prospects of the teaching profession as to secure in the future, 
for the benefit of the state, an adequate supply of amply efficient recruits for our educa- 
tional army. 



70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 



APPENDIX XIII 

TEACHERS' SALARIES^ 

''Basic Principles in the Making of a Salary Schedule for Teachers. The Findings 
of the Evanston, Illinois, Committee of Teachers," American School Board 
Journal, LVI (March, 1918), 26-27, 83. 

Becht, J. G. "The Teachers' QuaKfications, Compensation, and Retirement," 
Pennsylvania School Journal, LXIV (March, 1916), 393-96. 

Boynton, F. D. "Minimum Salary Legislation," Journal of the New York State 
Teachers' Association II (February, 1915), 16-20. 

Boykin, J. C, and King, Roberta. The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. U.S. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 16, 1914. Washington: Government 
Printing Office. 465 pages. 

Chamberlain, Arthur H. "Teachers' Salaries. A Study of the Salary Schedule 
in Various Cities in the United States," Sierra Educational News, XIII 
(January, 191 7), 12-16. 

Chancellor, William E. "The Future of Salaries for Ohio Teachers," Ohio 
Teacher, XXXIII (February, 1918), 294-96. 

"CoUege Teachers, Financial Status of," Eighth Report of the Carnegie Founda- 
tion (1913), pp. 98-111. 

England, Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles 
Which Should Determine the Construction of Scales of Salary for Teachers 
in Elementary Schools. Vol. I, Report, Cd. 8939; Vol. II, Summaries of 
Evidence and Memoranda, Cd. 8999. London, 1 918. 

"Evanston's Scale and Scheme," Journal of Education, LXXXVII (February 21, 
1918), 215-17. 
A reply of the Board of Education of Evanston, 111., to the report of the teachers' 

committee on a salary scale and scheme for grading salaries, promotions, and dismissals. 

Ferguson, James. "Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions," National Educa- 
tion Association, Addresses and Proceedings (1915), pp. 1162-64. 

Hadley, A. T. "Salaries at Yale University," School and Society, II (Novem- 
ber 20, 1915), 751-52. 
From the annual report. 

Hoban, C. F. "The Salary Question," Pennsylvania School Journal, LXIII 
(April, 191 5), 431-32. 

Kandel, I. L. "The War and Teachers' Salaries. England and Wales, and 
Scotland," School and Society (June 29, 1918, and July 6, 1918). 

Mayman, J. Edward. "The High Cost of Living and Stationary Salaries," 
American Teacher, VI (January, 1917), 2-4. 
Gives a table showing the average increases, in teachers' salaries compared with the 

average increases in cost of living. i 

' Contributed by Dr. Wolcott, librarian, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. 

70 



TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 71 

Miller, Sarah Pleis. "Have Women's Salaries Been Increased by Higher Uni- 
versity Training?" Journal of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, VIII 
(April, 1 91 5), 73-79. 
From information received from the Civil Service Bureau, teachers' agencies, city 

superintendents of schools, and university authorities, the author shows that college 

degrees do increase women's salaries. 

Monroe, Edwin S. "Salaries and Pensions," Oklahoma Journal of Education, 
VI (December 30, 1916), 2-4; Qanuary 6, 1917), 4-6. 

Monahan, A. C, and Dye, C. H. A Comparison of the Salaries of Rural and 
Urban Superintendents of Schools. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
No. 33,1917. Washington: Government Printing Office. 68 pages. 

National Education Association Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions 
of Teachers. Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living. 
Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Association, 1913. 328 pages. 

Purcell, Helen E. " Poor Salaries for Teachers as They Affect the Child," Ameri- 
can School Board Journal, LVI (February, 1918), 23, 83. 

Putnam, Mary B. "The Laborer and His Hire," American Schoolmaster, X 
(December 15, 1917), 433-45- 

"Resolved, That Men and Women Teachers Should Receive Equal Pay for the 
Same Grade of Work," Oklahoma Journal of Education, V (February 26, 
1916), 3-7. 
Contains: (i) Elizabeth Hodgson: "Men and Women Teachers Should Not Receive 

Equal Salaries"; (2) Laura M. Kingsbury: "Men and Women Teachers Should Receive 

Equal Salaries. A Reply." 

Robinson, Winifred J. "Have Women's Salaries Been Increased by Special 
Courses in Education?" Journal of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, 
VIII (April, 1915), 79-82. 

"Salaries of Manual-Training Teachers," fndustrial-Arts Magazine, VI Qanuary, 

1917), 36. 
Salary schedules of manual-training teachers in 21 cities in 1916. 

Severance, Lena L. "The Case of the New York State Normal School," Journal 
of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, VIII (April, 1916), 82-88. 
Salaries of women teachers in New York state. 

"Teachers' Salaries Notes," American School Board Journal, LVI (March, 1918), 

720. 

See also "Salary Schedule for Louisiana," p. 71, and "Teachers' Salaries m Massa- 
chusetts," pp. 70-71- 
United States Bureau of Education. A Comparative Study of the Salaries of 

Teachers and School Officers. BuUetin No. 31, 1915- Washington: Govern- 
ment Printing Office. 126 pages. 
Winsor, Frederick. "The Underpaid Pedagogues," Atlantic Monthly, CXVII 

(May, 1916), 654-57. 
Wood, Will C. "Suggestions on the Adjustment of Teachers' Salaries," Western 

Journal of Education, XXIV (February, 1918), 4-5. 

For earUer references see the bibliography at end of The Tangible Rewards of Teach- 
ing, by Boykin and King. U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletm No. i6, 1914- 



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